At a historically significant stage in the transition of the post-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe from a directive-planned economy to a market economy, an important role is played by the revival and development of small and medium-sized businesses as the fastest way to the formation of a private sector, the formation of a middle class, and the mitigation of the socio-economic consequences of market reforms. as a significant factor in the socio-political stability of society.

Practice has shown that small business develops most dynamically in those post-socialist countries where it is widely supported by the state. Where initially everything was given to the “invisible” hand of the market, the small business sector is experiencing significant growth difficulties.

The beginning of the transformation in all CEE countries was marked by the adoption of legislative acts to encourage private initiative, which lifted restrictions on the activities of individuals and expanded their rights in the foreign economic sphere. However, until recently, in most post-socialist countries, there were no clear regulatory and institutional prerequisites for the development of small business. Small entrepreneurs functioned in conditions of a weak financial base, a rather heavy tax burden, and intense competition for imported products, which predetermined the nature and structure of small business: it rushed into trade and intermediary activities and the service sector. In the context of a protracted transformational decline in production in a number of CEE countries, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, small business in most countries with economies in transition contributed more to solving the problems of self-survival than to creating the foundations market economy.

Due to the low capitalization and degree of corporativity of small business, its irrational structure has developed - the absolute predominance of micro-enterprises, that is, business entities with up to 10 employees. They make up 90 to 96% of all SMEs in the CEE countries. For example, in Bulgaria in 1997, out of the number of operating private enterprises, 91.6% were small firms employing up to 10 people; 1.2% - from 50 to 99 people and 1.4% - over 100 people. According to some estimates, about 18% of Bulgaria's GDP is generated in the SME sector.

A more prominent role in the economy is played by small businesses in the Czech Republic. In 1997, the number of entrepreneurs, including family members helping in business, reached 603 thousand and amounted to 12.1% of the total number of employees, including small entrepreneurs without hired labor - 7.6%, entrepreneurs with hired labor - 4 .1%, family members of entrepreneurs who help in business - 0.4%. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) provide 34.7% of production in industry, 68.5 in construction, 90.7 in trade, 85.6 in the hotel complex, 87.8 in the service sector and 44.4% - on transport.

In 1999, 76% of the Czech GDP was created in the private sector, including 33.3% in the sector of small and medium enterprises (in 1996 - 32.5%). In 2000, these enterprises generated 53% of GDP and employed 56% of the labor force.

A number of factors contributed to the successful course of events. And the most important of them is that already at the initial stage of transformation, the legal and institutional framework for the development of entrepreneurship, based on state support, was created. In 1992, the "Law on State Support for Small and Medium Enterprises" was adopted, aimed at stimulating the development of this form of economic activity.

According to Czech legislation, enterprises with up to 500 employees (since 1996 - up to 249 people) are classified as medium-sized enterprises, with up to 10 employees.

In the latest regulatory documents, a more complete description of a small enterprise is given: the number of employees is less than 50 people, the turnover for the last calendar year is not more than 250 million kroons, assets or property do not exceed 180 million kroons. (These criteria were set for 2000; earlier, when determining the status of a small enterprise, only one indicator was used - the number of employees).

An enterprise can be considered small only if the share in its authorized capital owned by one or more legal entities that are not small businesses does not exceed 25%. This “independent enterprise” rule, adopted in the European Union, is valid in almost all CEE countries. The law defines specific areas of activity of state bodies to support small and medium-sized businesses:

1.measures to increase the capitalization of enterprises: soft loans with a preferential interest rate and grace period repayments; subsidizing part of the interest on loans; direct grants;

2. support for programs to improve the educational and qualification level. State support for the training of students, raising the level of special training for both entrepreneurs and workers employed in the field of small and medium-sized businesses. Support is provided in the form of financial subsidies to entrepreneurs or organizations providing skills development services to small and medium-sized businesses;

3. support for services that provide economic and technical consulting services to small and medium-sized businesses;

4. support services for the collection, processing and dissemination of information required by SMEs;

5. support for applied research and technical development;

6. support for the creation of new jobs, especially for categories of people with
limited working capacity;

7. support economic development regions. Financial subsidies can be provided to enterprises in economically backward areas with serious social and economic problems;

8. support for cooperation with foreign partners, participation in exhibitions, including international ones;

9. support for the results of research on the problems of small and medium-sized businesses.

The main obstacle to the development of small businesses in post-socialist countries is the low level of capitalization associated with significant difficulties in accessing commercial loans. The main sources of financing for small businesses in most CEE countries are personal savings, loans from relatives and friends, income from the sale of goods and services. Almost 90% of small businesses cannot get loans because of their high cost and lack of collateral. But even in the case of access to credit resources, they are forced to pay the bank more high interest on loans than large enterprises, because banks are very cautious, trying to minimize their risks.

In the world there is a practice of creating structures that provide financial support to small and medium-sized businesses. For example, in the United States, the Small Business Administration, founded by the US Congress back in 1953, operates and provides guarantees for loans to small and medium-sized businesses. In Europe, such specialized credit organizations active in Austria and Germany.

In the Czech Republic, following the example of developed countries, back in 1992. A development bank with state participation, the Czech-Moravian Bank for Guarantees and Development (CMBGR), was established and began to function. For its "launch" the government has allocated 900 million crowns. Currently CMBGR is a universal bank with an authorized capital of 1.100 million kroons.

The main activity of the Czech-Moravian Guarantee and Development Bank is to support investment projects implemented by small and medium enterprises. Since 1997 the bank also participates in the implementation of the state housing program in the form of providing interest-free loans for housing, in supporting exports, financing projects to improve civilian infrastructure.

Until 2000, the state owned 49% of the capital of ChMBGR, 51% - to large Czech commercial banks. In June 2000, the state acquired a controlling stake in ChMBGR - 59.7%, which was a condition of the European investment bank, which provided the State Consolidation Bank with long-term loans in the amount of 15 billion kroons to finance civil infrastructure.

The Czech-Moravian Guarantee and Development Bank provides guarantees to small and medium-sized enterprises for:

Medium and long term investment loans. The level of guarantees can reach 70% of the loan volume. for stocks and operating costs up to a maximum of 40% of the loan can be used;

Operational loans - guarantees are provided against loans for the purchase of reserves and for operating costs associated with the project. The maximum term of guarantees is four years, their amount is limited to 50% of the loan amount or up to a maximum of 5 million kroons; - leasing - guarantees are provided for the repayment of the client's leasing payments up to a maximum of 70% or up to 30 million kroons.

For the period 1992-1998. CIBGR provided guarantees for 2287 loans totaling 10.9 billion kroons, preferential loans with a guarantee in the amount of 19.0 billion kroons. The average size of guarantees amounted to approximately 55.2% of the loan volume. During the same period, 8214 financial subsidies were allocated to entrepreneurs for a total amount of 5.9 billion kroons. In general, the volume of loans supported by the state through the CMBGR amounted to 45.4 billion kroons (about 1.5 billion dollars).

The largest volume of loan guarantees was provided for regional investment projects implemented in the economically backward regions of northern Moravia (approximately 40%) and South Bohemia. And the average size guarantee amounted to 4.8 million kroons for one entrepreneurial investment project. More than 50% of the total volume of guarantees provided by the CMBGR was directed to support investment projects in the industry, as well as projects in the field of industrial trade and services for the population.

During the same period, CIBGR subsidized the payment interest rate on more than 8,200 loans totaling 6 million kroons, which significantly reduced the financial burden on entrepreneurs when repaying loans in the amount of 45 million kroons. Investment projects implemented with the support of the bank contributed to the creation of over 50,000 new jobs.

In the event of non-fulfilment of the terms of the contract by the entrepreneur, the bank suspended financial support, and in some cases required him to return the amount provided.

In addition to supporting small businesses through the CMBGR as a guarantor of loans, the state provides assistance to small and medium-sized businesses by allocating money from the state budget. This is clearly seen from its structure. The following funds are provided in the budget as a separate line:

Czech Moravian Bank for Guarantees and Development;

On the regional programs entrepreneurship;

To support entrepreneurs who provide jobs for people with disabilities;

For investment in depressed industrial areas;

For regional development programs in northern Moravia;

On the program for the development of the border regions of the northwestern Czech Republic.

Accordingly, every year the government submits to the Czech National Council a report on the development of small and medium-sized enterprises, including an assessment of the effectiveness of the use of funds allocated for these purposes.

Another important form of support for small and medium-sized businesses in the Czech Republic is the provision of financial assistance to them within the framework of targeted government programs, annually adopted by the Ministry of Industry and Trade and the Ministry of Local Government, the implementer of which is the same Czech-Moravian Guarantee and Development Bank.

In 2000, the Czech budget allocated 1.95 billion kroons to support small and medium-sized businesses to the Ministry of Industry and Trade and the Ministry of Local Self-Government (in 1999 - 1.5 billion kroons). The draft budget for 2001 was supposed to allocate 1.3 billion kroons.

According to the law, programs must contain information about: the subject and purpose of support; criteria for its recipients; the central government body or structure announcing the program; form of support and conditions for its provision; sanctions for misuse of state support; the amount and timing of the provision of certain types of support. Usage control budget funds allocated to government-approved support programs is administered by the Supreme Control Committee.

The benefits provided by state programs are provided to enterprises and organizations of small and medium-sized businesses operating in the field of industry, construction or handicraft production, services, including medical, trade and transport, with the exception of a taxi service. Concessional loans can be used to purchase land plots, buildings and structures, machinery, equipment and means of transport, know-how, reconstruction and modernization of buildings. State programs to support small and medium-sized businesses are mainly focused on supporting medium- and long-term investment loans.

To receive support, entrepreneurial projects must meet at least one of the following conditions:

Creation of new jobs, at least 1 job no later than 1 year from the date of signing the loan agreement and the preservation of these new jobs during the entire period of support;

Employment of persons with limited working capacity for full or partial labor contract- at least 1 person for 1 year;

Improvement of ecology as a result of project implementation;

Increasing the export productivity of the enterprise, confirmed by data on the volume of exports of the recipient of support for the relevant period and copies of customs declarations confirming these data;

Manufacture of medical equipment for the disabled.

Projects must be implemented on the territory of the Czech Republic. Support is provided only for investment loans. No more than 40% of the loan volume can be used for reserves, debt-to-maturity and for reimbursement of operating costs. Support is not provided to enterprises that have outstanding obligations in relation to the state budget and state funds.

For failure to comply with the terms of the program for the borrower, sanctions are provided in the form of fines in the amount of 1-5% of the amount of the first tranche of the loan. In case of misuse of the loan, violation of the terms of the program or the implementation of the project outside the Czech Republic, the borrower is obliged to immediately repay the loan.

The number of government programs is constantly growing. Thus, 18 state programs have been announced for 2000 (against 10 programs in 1997, 8 in 1998 and 9 in 1999). Let's get acquainted with the brief characteristics of some of them.

One of the leading targeted programs support implemented by the CIBGR is the program "Credit", the customer of which is the Ministry of Industry and Trade. It is designed for small enterprises with less than 50 employees, implementing investment projects aimed at supporting exports and creating new jobs.

Since 1993, the state program "Region" has been operating, the purpose of which is to attract small businesses to economically weak regions of the country and thereby solve the problem of employment in these areas. The main condition for participation in the program is the creation of new permanent jobs during the year: from the moment of receiving support in the amount of up to 10 million kroons - 2 jobs, over 10 million kroons - 5 jobs. The maximum loan amount is 20 million kroons for up to 4 years.

The Capital program, which has been operating since 2000, is aimed at supporting the implementation of investment projects to increase the competitiveness of domestic production, increase exports, increase labor productivity and employment, and introduce environmentally friendly advanced technologies.

In the same year, adopted new program"Small loans" to create alternative sources of financing for entrepreneurial projects of small businesses aimed at the development of production and new technologies.

Loans are provided to finance investments in new technologies (minimum 70% of the loan), know-how (maximum 30% of the loan), solution of the liquidity problem (maximum 30% of the loan).

The review of the forms and methods of supporting investment projects in the Czech Republic within the framework of state targeted programs, although relatively brief, nevertheless convincingly testifies to the active role played by the state in stimulating the development of small and medium-sized businesses.

At the same time, a number of Czech liberal economists consider it counterproductive to have such a large number of programs, since, in their opinion, it scatters the funds allocated from the state budget. They believe that a more effective support tool is to reduce the tax burden on small and medium-sized businesses.

Actually, the tax reform in the Czech Republic is proceeding in the same way - in the direction of reducing the tax burden on small businesses, strengthening the self-sufficiency of regional budgets, and simplifying the system of taxation of small businesses. The corporate income tax rate decreased from 45% in 1993 to 35% in 1999 and 31% in 2000. This is adequate to the income taxation of legal entities in the developed countries of the European Union: Austria - 36%, Great Britain - 31%, Sweden -28%, France - 33.3% (data for 1998).

According to the new wording of the Law on Taxation of Income (1993), which entered into force on January 1, 2001, small entrepreneurs whose profit does not reach 1 million kroons in the reporting year can apply imputed tax.

In addition, small businesses are allowed to apply the accelerated depreciation and revaluation of fixed assets within five years.

And for those who employ persons with limited ability to work in their enterprises, tax benefits are established in the amount of 18,000 kroons (according to the norm of the old legislation - 9,000 kroons) and 60,000 kroons (previously 26,500 kroons) for disabled people using work with a serious disability . In addition, entrepreneurs receive a 30% reduction in basic taxation due to the actual costs of professional education students.

And finally, we can not say about the prices. The dynamic development of the sector of small and medium-sized businesses is facilitated by a rather tough policy of price liberalization, which is initially based on a phased release of prices under the regulatory function of the state in a package of consistent and interrelated macroeconomic stabilization measures.

The share of regulated prices and tariffs, as well as indirect taxes in consumer basket today is 18.3%, mainly these are prices in the branches of natural monopolies.

Thanks to state instruments of price regulation, the Czech Republic, unlike other post-socialist countries, managed to avoid an inflationary spiral. After a 56.6% jump in prices in 1991 as a result of price releases, inflation stabilized at 8-10% in subsequent years. In 1999 growth consumer prices amounted to 2.1%, in 2000 - 4.0%.

An analysis of the experience of the Czech Republic shows that at the stage of formation market relations in an opaque financial market and unstable banking sector government support is necessary and effective tool small business development.

The economic policy of this country in the field of small business support offers a number of tools, the use of which, in the case of a coordinated policy, can not only significantly reduce the financial burden on the entrepreneur, but also reduce credit risk commercial banks providing loans to small businesses. As we see, public policy should be turned towards small business and involves the use of a wide range of forms and methods. This includes the development of a solid regulatory and institutional framework for the development of small businesses; and creation state bank safeguards and development; and development of government programs to support small businesses; and connecting them to the information and consulting network; and modification of tax legislation in the direction of stimulating the development of small business.

The success of economic reforms largely depends on the formation of the middle class, which is the basis of society in developed European countries. It is difficult to imagine building a civil democratic society and a market economy without creating the necessary conditions and economic base for the development of the middle class, without government support. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that it is the middle class that will largely determine the political image of society.

According to World Bank, in The World Bank Group's Ease of Doing Business Index, the Czech Republic ranks 27th out of 190 countries, ahead of European countries such as France (29th), Slovenia (30th), Slovakia (30th place), the Russian Federation(40th place) and others. According to the data, the Czech Republic ranks first in the ease of doing international trade, and is also a country where it is quite easy to set up a business, register a property or get a loan from a bank.

Therefore, it is not surprising that many foreigners choose the Czech Republic to open and develop their own small, medium and large businesses. According to the Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, out of 330,080 operating individual entrepreneurs in the Czech Republic, 32,230 entrepreneurs (that is, 9.8%) are foreigners: in particular, Ukrainians (9918 individual entrepreneurs), Vietnamese (4228 individual entrepreneurs), Russians (1778 individual entrepreneurs) , Kazakhstanis (343 individual entrepreneurs) and representatives of other nations. Most of the individual foreign entrepreneurs are concentrated in the capital of the Czech Republic - Prague, but in recent years, business owned by foreigners has begun to go beyond the capital.

However, despite the attractiveness of the Czech Republic for a foreign entrepreneur, doing business in the Czech Republic has its own characteristics. According to teachers Business schools in Prague, opened at the educational center "Study Consulting", the Czech market is quite specific and conservative, and requires a unique approach when opening any commercial enterprise.

Business School participants - foreign entrepreneurs who plan to open or have a business in the Czech Republic - believe that the most difficult thing for them when starting a business in the Czech Republic was to understand the tax and administrative responsibilities associated with starting and running a business in the Czech Republic. According to them, it was difficult to understand and get used to the mentality of local residents, which determines the nature of the demand for products and services, as well as correctly calculate the pricing policy of the enterprise. A rather big obstacle to success and profit is the poor command of the Czech language.

At the same time, foreign entrepreneurs in the Czech Republic speak positively about the process of opening a new enterprise and the relatively small bureaucracy in the Czech government. For example, to open a sole proprietorship (živnostenské oprávnění) you need only 1000 CZK, an application and the applicant's passport (in some cases a certificate of no criminal record may also be required), and only five days.

To open a limited liability company, it is enough authorized capital in the amount of 1 Czech crown. It is also a positive fact that the Czech state provides subsidies for the development of small and medium-sized businesses in the amount of 50,000 kroons to several million kroons. They can be received not only by Czech citizens, but also by foreign entrepreneurs who have opened an individual entrepreneur or legal entity in the Czech Republic. Grants are given by the applicant on the basis of the proposed structured business plan.

As part of the practical educational program of the Business School in Prague, educators, together with participants, develop a business plan, including one suitable for obtaining a grant or an investment loan.

Each organization that has a legal address in the Czech Republic must keep its accounting records in accordance with the legislation of this country. When registering or an enterprise on the territory of the Czech state, the accounting department of the Czech Republic becomes its important component, regardless of the specifics of the work or Money.

Features of Czech accounting

Regulatory legal acts that govern issues accounting in the Czech Republic, comply with EU legislation. According to the legislation, there are two ways of deductions - tax and accounting.

Accounting reporting includes the balance sheet, statements of changes in equity, cash flows, and profit and loss. At the same time, it is enough for small enterprises to submit only a balance sheet and a profit and loss statement.

Trust your bookkeeping to a professional

Not every entrepreneur can deal with the taxation system and, moreover, understand the intricacies of accounting, especially without perfect knowledge of the language and local legislation. Therefore, it is best to entrust such an important and responsible business to professionals, and it is good if they are a local accountant. Agree, an accountant in Prague will certainly be better acquainted with the law than a visitor. In any case, when choosing an accountant, be sure to pay attention to his education, work experience and license. A true professional who has the qualifications of an accountant in the Czech Republic is responsible for his work, which means that he not only competently prepares all reports and submits them on time, but also personally signs them.

Transfer of bookkeeping to outsourcing

With all its pluses, the content of its own accounting has one, but a significant minus - this is its cost. Indeed, paying for the work of a highly qualified full-time specialist in the Czech Republic may not be cheap, especially for a start-up enterprise. The most reasonable solution in this case may be to outsource bookkeeping to a third-party company or a private specialist. This practice has long been widely used in foreign companies. By outsourcing bookkeeping, you will have the opportunity to focus more on the main functions of the enterprise.

By outsourcing your bookkeeping to a third party, you can not only save on costs, but also get a number of additional benefits. For example, you will be relieved of the risk that an accountant suddenly falls ill at a crucial moment or decides to quit before handing over the balance sheet. In addition, any losses associated with incorrect calculation of taxes or late submission of reports will be reimbursed by the outsourcing company.

Relevance of information: 2019-01-23

Organizations with a registered office in the Czech Republic must keep accounting records in accordance with Czech law. The framework and methods of accounting are established by the Accounting Act - č. 563/1991 Sb.

Responsibilities for accounting are:
- Legal entities with legal entities. address in the Czech Republic;
- Foreign persons, if they are engaged in entrepreneurial activities in the territory of the Czech Republic;
- Individuals with a license to conduct business activities;
- And other accounting units to which the law prescribes this

Basic principles of accounting:

Reporting period
The fiscal year must contain twelve consecutive months.
The addendum to the law on accounting, effective from 1.1.2001, enables taxpayers to keep accounting in other periods, except for the calendar year, in agreement with the tax authorities.

Accounting system
Czech accounting system for legal entities is based on a double-entry bookkeeping system that is compatible with accounting systems in other European countries.

Depreciation
Czech legislation distinguishes between two types of depreciation: tax and accounting.

Accounting depreciation
The size and method of applying depreciation is determined by the enterprise within the framework of accounting rules. Accounting depreciation is included in the costs of the enterprise.

Tax depreciation
The amount and method of application is determined in the Income Tax Law. Tax depreciation is calculated when determining the income tax base.

Depreciation is calculated on the basis of acquisition costs and is used either on a straight line (§ 31 Zákon 586/1992 Sb.) or accelerated (§ 32 č. 586/1992 Sb.). The depreciation method for each newly acquired tangible and intangible property is in most cases established by the owner, the method cannot be changed during the entire depreciation period. Depreciation rates and terms are based on the type of property - tangible or intangible property.

Tangible property
Fixed assets are accounted for by depreciation groups - the Czech accounting system of the Czech Republic distinguishes 6 groups. The definition of depreciation groups is part of the appendix to the Income Tax Act (č. 586/1992 Sb.).

The depreciation rate in the year of acquisition is lower than in subsequent years, regardless of the type of depreciation. Exceptions are established by the Income Tax Act (č. 586/1992 Sb.).

Reserve valuation
Stocks are valued at so-called warehouse prices. Czech laws allow two ways to calculate the stock price:

Calculation of the warehouse price using the FIFO method (acronym English First In, First Out - first in - first out), that is, the first element entering the system is the first to leave it at the same time (those items that were purchased first are written off as the first accounting ones )
- Calculation of the warehouse price, the so-called average price method, that is, stocks are valued according to a certain formula, and goods are issued from the warehouse at this price (the cost is the arithmetic average).

If an enterprise decides to use a particular method for a particular type of commodity, that method must be used throughout the year, without change throughout the year.

Inventory valuation using the LIFO (acronym Last In, First Out) method is not allowed in the Czech Republic.

Under the current law of the Czech Republic, any organization that is located within this country and has a legal address is required to keep accounting records. Accounting in the Czech Republic covers the following category of subjects: legal entities, as well as foreign citizens who carry out entrepreneurial activities within the state. Also individuals who have a business license. In addition to those listed, bookkeeping applies to other persons who have the right to carry out entrepreneurial activities.

The main characteristics of accounting in the Czech Republic:

Reporting period. The fiscal period of taxation consists of twelve months, which follow one after the other. The Law on Accounting has an addition that has been in force since January 1, 2001 and gives taxpayers the right to keep records in other time frames, and not just a calendar year.

Accounting automation system. Any accountant in Prague is aware that legal entities in the Czech Republic, as well as in another European country, conduct accounting on the principle of double entry.

Depreciation rates and depreciation allowances. According to the legislation, there are two methods of depreciation in accounting - tax and accounting. The amount and method of accounting depreciation is determined by the organization itself, taking into account the existing regulations. The organization bears all the costs of such deductions. Tax depreciation is calculated taking into account legislation.

For the formation financial statements The following documents are used in the Czech Republic:

• Income Statement
• Accounting balance
• Appendix to the balance, which includes reporting on the movement of funds.

The obligation to conduct accounting by organizations is explained by objective reasons: ensuring accounting for the business activities of the company, which prevents unnecessary cash spending in case tax audit. Also, such an organizational technique helps to develop documents individually for the company, ensuring the stable and legal activity of any business entity. No organization can function without accounting. All documentation must be regulated by law. And information data must be entered into a computer database.