A qualitatively new innovative stage in reproduction at enterprises. Abstract: Revival is a qualitatively new stage in the history of Western European culture. The essence of it is the transition from the era of the medieval vision of the world to the culture of the New Time. What does effective mean?

14.02.2022

The liberation of Muslim peoples from colonial dependence, the creation of a world system of socialism, and the deepening of crisis phenomena in the capitalist world posed fundamentally new problems for representatives of Muslim social thought. This was reflected primarily in the widespread struggle around the problem of choosing the path of development by the liberated countries, during which numerous concepts of the so-called “third way”, different from both capitalist and socialist, appeared. Appealing to the traditional values of Islam, Muslim public figures (both religious and secular) put forward the thesis about the Islamic path of development as the only acceptable one for countries where Islam spreads. On its basis, the concepts of “Islamic state”, “Islamic government”, Islamic economy”, “Islamic socialism”, etc. are created, often significantly different from each other in the interpretation of certain issues, but having a common social nature - bourgeois or petty bourgeois.

The concept of an “Islamic state” implies the embodiment in modern conditions of the traditional Islamic model of political organization of society, in which secular and spiritual power were combined in one form or another (with the recognition of Allah as the only source of power), the principles of fair distribution of income, regulation of the economy in in accordance with the prescribed Shari'ah, etc. In general, these concepts represent a modernization of the political and socio-economic doctrines of classical Islam, taking into account the specifics of the development of a particular country. Measures for their implementation and propaganda, called “Islamization,” are carried out “from above” - through the legislative introduction of certain norms (for example, in Pakistan - the introduction of 'ushra and zakat, the Islamization of the banking system, in Iran - the proclamation of "Islamic rule") , and “from below” - as a result of pressure from religious and political organizations, among which the Muslim Brotherhood is most active in this direction. “Islamization” also means the process of expanding the number of followers of Islam, which is taking place in a number of countries in Asia and Africa (primarily in the region south of the Sahara), which is often artificially stimulated by the active work of numerous missionary Islamic centers created mainly with funds from the oil-producing states of Arabia.

Modern Islam is the second largest religion in the world (after Christianity). According to approximate reports, the total number of Muslims on the globe reaches 800 million people (about 90 percent of them Sunnis), of whom more than two-thirds live in foreign Asia, making up over 20 percent of the population of this part of the planet, almost 30 percent in Africa (49 percent of the continent's population). Of the more than 120 countries in the world in which Muslim communities exist, in 35 Muslims make up the majority of the population - over 80 percent of the population in all countries of North Africa, Western Asia (except Cyprus, Lebanon, Israel), Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Somalia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and some others; in a number of countries, followers of Islam account for from half to 80 percent of the inhabitants (Guinea, Mali, Lebanon, Chad, Sudan), in Malaysia and Nigeria - almost half, in some countries they constitute an influential minority (Guinea-Bissau, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Sierra -Leone, etc.). The largest Muslim communities in absolute numbers are in Indonesia, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh; a significant number of Muslims live in China, Thailand, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Cyprus, some European countries (Yugoslavia, Albania, Great Britain, Germany, France, etc.), America (USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago), in Australia, on the Fiji Islands.

In 28 Afro-Asian states, Islam is recognized as the state (or official) religion. These are Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, etc. In some countries, the word “Islamic” is included in their official name: Islamic Republic of Iran, Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Mauritania, etc.

In many countries where Islam spreads, there are Muslim parties that often play an important role in politics, for example the Party islamic republic in Iran, Unity and Development Party in Indonesia, Pan-Malayan Islamic Party in Malaysia, Jamaat-e Islami in India and Pakistan.

In a number of countries, religious and political organizations are widespread (including those that are outlawed, for example, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Islamic Liberation Party, etc.), there are numerous religious educational institutions (Koranic schools, madras, Muslim universities), Islamic societies, missionary organizations, commercial enterprises (Islamic banks, insurance companies).

The Muslim legal system continues to be maintained. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s, attempts were made to revive some Shari'a norms that had previously been abolished in practice: for example, the introduction of corporal punishment for criminal offenses defined by Islamic law in Pakistan, Sudan (under President J. Nimeiri) , Arabian monarchies.

In the late 70s - early 80s, international Muslim organizations began to play a certain role in international affairs, operating at both governmental and non-governmental levels. The most significant of them is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (Munazzamat al-mu'tamar al-Islami), created in 1969 and uniting 44 Afro-Asian states, as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization. Muslim countries are represented in it by heads of state and government. The OIC carries out its activities aimed at implementing Islamic solidarity through the General Secretariat with headquarters in Jeddah and a number of specialized organizations (Islamic Development Bank, Islamic News Agency, Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture, Islamic Development Fund, etc.) . The activities of the OIC are characterized by the duality of political decisions: on the one hand, anti-imperialist slogans are put forward and decisions are made directed against international imperialism and Zionism, on the other hand, anti-communist calls are often heard, and reactionary forces in the countries of expansion are supported.

Among non-governmental Muslim international organizations The most active are the League of the Islamic World (established in 1962 in Mecca), the World Islamic Congress, the World Islamic Organization, the Islamic Council of Europe, etc. It is characteristic that in the activities of these organizations reactionary, anti-communist elements play a much larger role than in the activities of the OIC. Their efforts are aimed primarily at promoting and disseminating Islam, organizing international meetings of religious leaders, and providing assistance to Muslim communities in various countries.

The concept of an “Islamic state” implies the embodiment in modern conditions of the traditional Islamic model of political organization of society, in which secular and spiritual power were combined in one form or another (with the recognition of Allah as the only source of power), the principles of fair distribution of income, regulation of the economy in in accordance with the prescribed Shariah, etc. In general, these concepts represent a modernization of the political and socio-economic doctrines of classical Islam, taking into account the specifics of the development of a particular country. Measures for their implementation and propaganda, called “Islamization,” are carried out both “from above” - through the legislative introduction of certain norms (for example, in Pakistan - the introduction of usra and zakat, the Islamization of the banking system, in Iran - the proclamation of “Islamic rule”), both “from below” - as a result of pressure from religious and political organizations, among which the Muslim Brotherhood is most active in this direction. “Islamization” also means the process of expanding the number of followers of Islam, which is taking place in a number of countries in Asia and Africa (primarily in the region south of the Sahara), which is often artificially stimulated by the active work of numerous missionary Islamic centers created mainly with funds from the oil-producing states of Arabia.

In many countries where Islam spreads, there are Muslim parties that often play an important role in politics, for example, the Islamic Republic Party in Iran, the Unity and Development Party in Indonesia, the Pan-Malayan Islamic Party in Malaysia, and Jamaat-i Islami in India and Pakistan.

The Muslim legal system continues to be maintained. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s, attempts were made to revive some Sharia norms that had previously been abolished in practice: for example, the introduction of corporal punishment for criminal offenses defined by Muslim law in Pakistan, Sudan (under President J. Nimeiri), Arabian monarchies.

In the late 70s - early 80s, international Muslim organizations began to play a certain role in international affairs, operating at both governmental and non-governmental levels. The most significant of them is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (Munazzamat al-Mutamar al-Islami), created in 1969 and uniting 44 Afro-Asian states, as well as the Palestine Liberation Organization. Muslim countries are represented in it by heads of state and government. The OIC carries out its activities aimed at implementing Islamic solidarity through the General Secretariat with headquarters in Jeddah and a number of specialized organizations (Islamic Development Bank, Islamic News Agency, Islamic Organization for Education, Science and Culture, Islamic Development Fund, etc.) . The activities of the OIC are characterized by the duality of political decisions: on the one hand, anti-imperialist slogans are put forward and decisions are made directed against international imperialism and Zionism, on the other hand, anti-communist calls are often heard, and reactionary forces in the countries of expansion are supported.

Among non-governmental Muslim international organizations, the most active are the League of the Islamic World (established in 1962 in Mecca), the World Islamic Congress, the World Islamic Organization, the Islamic Council of Europe, etc. It is characteristic that in the activities of these organizations reactionary, anti-communist elements play a much larger role, than in the activities of the OIC. Their efforts are aimed primarily at promoting and disseminating Islam, organizing international meetings of religious leaders, and providing assistance to Muslim communities in various countries.

Ahmad b. Abd Allah (about 570-632) from the Hashim clan of the Quraish tribal group - the founder of the religion of Islam and the first Muslim community. According to Muslims, he is the prophet of Allah and his messenger, through whom the text of the Koran was transmitted to people.

Born in Mecca into a poor family, but closely related to the Meccan nobility. His father died during a trading trip before the birth of Mohammed, his mother a few years later. Mohammed was brought up in the house of his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib. From a young age he was familiar with the caravan trade and sometimes took part in trade trips. Mohammed hired himself to conduct the trading business of a wealthy Meccan widow, Khadija bint Khuwaylit, whom he married at the age of 25. While Khadija was alive, Mohammed did not take other wives. She bore him several sons who died in infancy, including Qasim, after whom Mohammed was called Abu-l-Qasim, and four daughters: Ruqayu, Umm Kulthum, Zainab and Fatima.

Mohammed loved solitude and pious reflection, and often retired to the mountains adjacent to Mecca; was familiar with the basics of Judaism and Christianity, with the views of the Arabian monotheists-Hanifs. When Mohammed was about 40 years old, during one of his periods of solitude, visions began to appear to him, and then utterances from the outside, later recorded from memory from his words and forming the holy book of Muslims - the Koran.

Initially, Mohammed was frightened by the “revelations” that had begun, but then he became convinced that he had been chosen by God as a messenger (rasul) and prophet (nabi) to bring the word of God to people. The first “revelations” that Mohammed tried to convey to his relatives proclaimed the greatness of the one and only god Allah, rejected the polytheism widespread in Arabia, and warned of the coming resurrection of the dead, the Day of Judgment and punishment in hell for all who do not believe in Allah.

Mohammed's preaching was met with ridicule in Mecca, but gradually a group of supporters gathered around him, partly from noble families, partly from the lower classes of Meccan society. The Meccan elite began to persecute and oppress the followers of Mohammed - the Muslims. Mohammed himself was under the protection of his clan and its head, Abu Talib, while many Muslims, fleeing persecution, left Mecca for Ethiopia. Mohammed's sermon, supposedly conveying the direct speech of Allah, at that time proved the omnipotence of Allah, often called the Merciful (Rahman), his greatness, and man's complete dependence on him. At the same time, Mohammed referred listeners to the stories they knew about the prophets of the past and about the lost ancient peoples. The Koran seemed to show that the prophecy of Mohammed is a known and possible phenomenon and that disobedience to the prophet always led to punishment for unbelievers.

At some point (around 618-620) the possibility of a compromise with the Meccans arose. Mohammed allegedly agreed to recognize the special position under Allah of the goddesses revered in Mecca - al-Lat, al-uzzi and Manat, and the Meccans - the prophetic mission of Mohammed and the first place of Allah among the gods. However, reconciliation, which violated the main principle of the new teaching - strict monotheism, did not take place, and the struggle intensified. In the meantime, Khandija died and Abu Talib died. Mohammed lost much of his moral support and protection. Abu Lahab, who became the head of the clan, refused Mohammed’s protection.

Mohammed began to look for supporters outside of Mecca. He preached to people who came to the city on trade business, and made a trip to Taif in an unsuccessful search for refuge. Finally, around 620, he entered into a secret agreement with a group of residents of Yathrib, a large land-owning oasis some 400 km away. north of Mecca. The Arab tribes who lived there and converted to Judaism were in a state of protracted and complicated civil strife, from which, according to Arabian custom, they hoped to get out with the help of an authoritative and impartial arbitrator. They invited Mohammed as such a judge, recognizing his prophetic mission as the basis of his authority.

First, most of the Meccan Muslims, and then Mohammed himself, moved to Yathrib. He arrived there on the 12th or 18th of Rabbi I, i.e. September 24 or 22, 622. From the first month (al-Muharram) of this year, Muslims (under Umar I) began to count the years of the new era according to the Hijri, i.e. according to the year of Mohammed and Mecca’s migration to Yathrib, which became known as Mazhinat an-nabi (“city of the Prophet”) or simply al-Madina (Medina).

Mohammed transformed from a simple preacher into a political leader of a community that at first included not only Muslims. His autocracy is gradually established in Medina. The main support of Mohammed were the Muslims who came with him from Mecca - the Muhajirs and the Medina Muslims - the Ansars. Mohammed also hoped to find religious and political support from the Jews of Yathrib; he even pointedly chose Jerusalem as the qibla. However, they refused to recognize Mohammed as the non-Jewish messiah; moreover, they ridiculed the Prophet of Allah and even came into contact with Mohammed’s enemies - the Meccans. They were joined by some other Yathribs from pagans, Jews and Christians, who initially willingly converted to Islam, but then opposed Mohammed. This internal Medina opposition is repeatedly condemned in the Quran under the name of “hypocrites” (munafikun).

Internal divisions helped develop the idea of Islam as a separate religion and strengthen its Arabian features. Mohammed speaks more and more clearly about the special role of Islam, about himself as the last prophet - “the seal of the prophets”, Jews and Christians are condemned as bad believers, Islam is declared to correct the distortions of the will of Allah that they have made. In contrast to Saturday, a special Muslim day of common prayer is established - Friday, the holiness of al-Kaba and the paramount importance of pilgrimage to it are announced. It becomes the main shrine of Islam, and worshipers begin to turn to it during prayer (qibla).

In Medina, the first mosque, the house of Mohammed, was built, the foundations of Muslim ritual were established - the rules of prayer, ablution, fasting, call to prayer, collections for pious needs, etc. In the sermons of Mohammed, the rules of community life began to be fixed - the principles of inheritance, division of property, and marriage. Bans on wine, pork and gambling are announced.

The position of Mohammed as the messenger of Allah begins to stand out. In the “revelations” there appear demands for special respect for Mohammed; exceptions from certain prohibitions that are obligatory for others are “sent down” to him.

Thus, in Medina, Mohammed formed the basic principles of religious teaching, ritual and community organization. These principles were expressed in “revelations” and partly in the statements, decisions and actions of Mohammed himself.

One of the forms of community unity and expansion from the very beginning of the Medinan period was the fight against unbelievers of Meccans. In 623, Muslim attacks on Meccan caravans began; in 624, at Badr, Muslims led by Mohammed defeated the Meccan detachment, and this victory was perceived and interpreted as proof that Allah is on the side of the Muslims. In 625, the Meccans marched to Medina and fought a Muslim army near Mount Uhud. In the battle, Mohammed was slightly wounded in the head, the Muslims suffered heavy losses, but the Meccans did not capitalize on their success and retreated. The following year they again approached Medina, but were stopped by Muslim defenses at a specially dug ditch.

The close ties of the internal Medina opposition with the Meccans, its attempts to assassinate Mohammed and its persistent refusal to completely submit to him provoked harsh retaliatory measures. Successively, the Jewish tribes Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina, a significant part of the Banu Qurayza were killed, and some of the most active opponents and rivals of Mohammed were killed. Large forces were then assembled for a decisive struggle against Mecca.

In 628, a large army, joined by some nomadic tribes, moved towards Mecca and stopped in the town of al-Hudaibiya, on the very border of the sacred territory of Mecca.

Negotiations between the Meccans and Muslims ended in a truce. Exactly a year later, Mohammed and his companions performed a small pilgrimage (umra) in accordance with the agreement.

Meanwhile, the strength of the Medina community grew stronger. The rich oases of Northern Arabia, Khaibar and Fadak, were conquered, and more and more tribes became allies of Mohammed. Under these conditions, secret negotiations between the Meccans and Mohammed continued; many Meccans accepted Islam openly or secretly. As a result of all this, the Muslim army that approached Mecca in 630 entered the city without hindrance. Mohammed worshiped al-Kaba and cleansed it of pagan idols.

Mohammed, however, continued to live in Medina, only once (in 632) making a pilgrimage called farewell (hijjat al-wada). The victory over Mecca further strengthened Mohammed's self-confidence and raised his political and religious authority in Arabia. He sends messages to various kings and leaders of Arabia and the governors of the Byzantine and Iranian regions bordering Arabia with a proposal to convert to Islam. Meccan military units seize new oases in Northern Arabia and appear in Yemen. Representatives of various tribes and regions of the peninsula come to Mecca. Many of those who came negotiate an alliance with Mohammed. At the Battle of Hunayin in 630, the Muslims and their allies repelled a major attack on Mecca by hostile nomadic tribes. In 631-632. a significant part of Arabia finds itself, to one degree or another, included in the political union headed by Mohammed.

IN last years Mohammed’s life defines the goal of this unification - the spread of the power of Islam to the north; he is actively preparing a military expedition to Syria. In June/July 632, at the age of 60-63, Mohammed unexpectedly died for his companions after a short illness. There is a legend that he was poisoned. He was buried in the main mosque of Madinna (Mosque of the Prophet).

With the death of Mohammed, the direct “contact” of the community with Allah ceased; it began to be governed by caliphs - the Prophet’s deputies in implementing the laws and rules commanded by Mohammed and set out in the Koran. Different groups of Muslims competed for the right to nominate a representative for the post of caliph. One of Mohammed's closest associates, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph.

After the death of Khadija, Mohammed concluded a large number of marriages. The Prophet's right to exceed the number of wives allowed for a Muslim (four) was specifically justified by the Koranic “revelation.” For the most part, these marriages were of a political nature, strengthening Mohammed’s ties with various tribal groups. Tradition considers Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, to be Mohammed's favorite wife. After the death of the Prophet, she tried to play a political role as the custodian and interpreter of his covenants. The Coptic slave Maria also enjoyed the special love of Mohammed, who bore him a son, Ibrahim, who died in infancy and was bitterly mourned by the Prophet. According to legend, Mohammed had 11 official wives, nine of whom were alive at the time of his death.

Mohammed left no male offspring. Mohammed's daughter Fatima married his cousin and great friend Ali b. Abi Talib. From the descendants of their sons - al-Hasan and al-Husayn - come all the fairly numerous descendants of the “family of the Prophet” in today’s Muslim world - the sayyids and sharifs.

IN modern science There is a general opinion that Mohammed really lived and acted, uttered a significant part of the words that make up the Koran, and founded the Muslim community, first in Mecca, then in Yathrib. In the biography of Mohammed (sira), in legends about his words and deeds (hadith), in commentaries to the Koran (tafsir), etc. Along with historically reliable information, there are many later additions, speculations and legends. All together they make up the biography of the Prophet known to all Muslims.

Islam, in principle, does not endow Mohammed with any supernatural traits. The Koran repeatedly emphasizes that he is a person like everyone else. Nevertheless, a cycle of legends about miracles gradually arose around his figure. Some of them develop allusions from the Koran, such as the legend that angels cut open the chest of the young Mohammed and washed his heart, or the legend of his night journey on the magical animal al-Buraq to Jerusalem and subsequent ascension to heaven. A number of legends have developed about the miracles performed by Mohammed - in his presence a milking sheep gives milk, a small amount of food is enough for many people, etc. In general, however, there is relatively little such material in the legends about Mohammed.

In European culture, the image of Mohammed was initially the object of various attacks and accusations of treachery, cruelty, lust, and magical legends arose that attracted Christian conquerors, such as the coffin of Mohammed hanging in the air. In a bizarre way, he sometimes became an object of secret worship, for example among the Templars. The Enlightenment considered Mohammed a deceiver who used religion for his own well-being. Scientists and publicists in Europe saw in Mohammed a revolutionary, a reformer, an ardent political leader, an inspired prophet, a student of Jewish rabbis or Christian monks, a major politician, etc. The success of Islam as a religion and as a social system was ensured by both objective and subjective factors. Among the latter, one of the leading places is occupied by the personality of Mohammed, an inspired speaker, preacher, dedicated religious teacher, an intelligent and flexible politician who knew how to combine the ideal with the realities of life, loyalty to tradition with decisive innovations, integrity with flexibility, “democracy” with autocracy, gentleness with sternness and determination.

The real results of Mohammed’s activities and the image of a prophet and ruler, for which he created the basis with his life, determine the significance of the role and personality of Mohammed in the medieval history of the East and West.

Qualitatively new

qualitatively new

Together or separately? Spelling dictionary-reference book. - M.: Russian language. B. Z. Bukchina, L. P. Kakalutskaya. 1998 .

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Books

WTO membership. A new stage of Russia's participation in the international trading system. Monograph, Sutyrin Sergey Feliksovich, Sherov-Ignatiev Vladimir Genrikhovich, Trofimenko Olga Yurievna. The monograph is an attempt to evaluate a qualitatively new period in the development of the domestic economy associated with Russia’s accession to the World trade organization August 22, 2012 Book...
WTO membership is a new stage of Russia's participation in the international trading system Monograph Second edition revised and expanded, Sutyrin S., Trofimenko O. (eds.). The monograph is an attempt to evaluate a qualitatively new period in the development of the domestic economy associated with Russia’s accession to the World Trade Organization on August 22, 2012. The book…

Section IV.

RENAISSANCE CULTURE

The Renaissance is a qualitatively new stage in the history of Western European culture. Its essence is the transition from the era of the medieval vision of the world to the culture of the New Age. This transition took place in all areas of human worldview and perception of the world - in science, religion, art.

This “cultural revolution” was expressed most clearly in the change in goals and methods creative activity. New methods of acquiring scientific knowledge and education, a new visual system in painting, new genres in literature, new forms of social behavior.

The cultural movement of the Renaissance, despite the formula contained in the name, was not a return of antiquity (humanity cannot return to its past), but a dialogue between ancient philosophy and aesthetics, the Christian worldview and the realistic consciousness of the emerging bourgeois society. In this dialogue, the harmony of the real and the ideal, the material-natural and the spiritual-divine was born, and a new type of aesthetic consciousness was born.

The Renaissance was not the time of the resurrection of ancient antiquity, but the era of the birth of a fundamentally new European culture.

§ 1. ORIGINS OF REVIVAL

Since the emergence of the science of culture, the problem of the Renaissance has been considered one of the most difficult. The term "Renaissance" (in French "renaissance", in Italian "rinascimento"), emphasizing the return of the cultural ideals of antiquity, appeared in the 16th century to define the new cultural era that replaced the Middle Ages.

It was the thinkers of the Renaissance who began to call the Middle Ages “gloomy”) “dark” centuries, contrasting this period with the flourishing of a new culture. But we must remember that historically the Renaissance did not appear after a period of “barbarism”, but grew on the soil of an already very high, very “scientific” and complex culture. The Renaissance relies on the achievements of this medieval culture no less than on the ancient heritage.

The Renaissance did not reject Christian culture for the sake of antiquity, but harmonized them - a feature that was increasingly lost in the 17th and subsequent centuries. The miracle of the Renaissance is a natural product of the Middle Ages. The poetry of the vagantes and troubadours prepared Dante and Petrarch; they prepared the poetry of the 15th-16th centuries. In medieval cathedrals, not only church services were held, but also performances on religious topics were staged. From these performances the Renaissance Theater grew. The Renaissance was prepared and nurtured by medieval intellectuals, artists, knights, poets, and historians. Thousands and thousands of professors and students of independent universities, philosophizing monks, vagantes, lawyers, doctors, scholastics - this is the soil on which new thinking and a new culture grew.

Among the definitions of the Renaissance there is no generally accepted one. Thinkers, writers), historians, and art critics offer their explanations for this cultural phenomenon, paying attention to its various features. If we group together many different features, we can understand the cultural meaning of the Renaissance as:

The flourishing of culture;

Revolution in culture;

Transitional cultural stage;

Restoration of antiquity.

Each of these features can manifest itself independently of the Renaissance, but only their combination forms a qualitatively new stage in the development of culture. Therefore, we can define the European Renaissance as a time of powerful cultural flourishing, the restoration of many cultural traditions of Greco-Roman antiquity; a decisive cultural restructuring and a transitional stage to a new time in the history of European civilization.

The Renaissance is not so much a collection of cultural works (paintings, frescoes, statues, cathedrals, palaces, poems, short stories), but above all a new type of thinking and religiosity, a special spiritual make-up and way of life. It is thanks to this that the Renaissance

He created works of art that mark an irreversible revolution in the spiritual development of mankind. The art of the Renaissance is the clearest sign of a general cultural reorientation.

The flourishing of culture in this era is associated with increased energy of cultural activity, with the creation of new incentives for cultural creativity. At this time, many new cultural centers were formed. The cultural life of the society is particularly intense. Artistic culture goes beyond the medieval framework that constrains it. Creative freedom is clearly manifested in all types of human activity. The most convincing sign of cultural flourishing during the Renaissance can be considered the amazing concentration in a small space-time period of great, universally gifted people who chose new paths of creativity. The names of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Donatello, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo can be symbols of Renaissance culture.

The Renaissance is called the era of cultural revolution to emphasize that at this time a cultural restructuring, changes in public consciousness are taking place in society, old cultural mechanisms are being replaced by new ones, and new cultural values are emerging. During the Renaissance, medieval criteria for assessing cultural activity were questioned.

Despite the origin of the term “Renaissance,” there was not and could not be a revival of ancient antiquity. But the Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations in contemporary culture. He did not bring back to life all the achievements of ancient culture, but only those that were in tune with the aspirations of his time.

The Renaissance also “revises” medieval cultural values.

The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity. The Renaissance brought these two fundamental principles of European culture closer together.

The basis of modern culture since the Renaissance has been the search for individuality. Not a single culture, including antiquity, had any desire to reveal the dignity of individual opinion, taste, talent, or way of life.

The idea of individuality, which first clearly manifested itself in the Italian Renaissance, was fully formed during the Enlightenment and only in the last century became commonplace in European culture. The word “individuality” (and “personality”) itself appeared some 200-300 years ago. The life of people was inseparable from the clan, community, and corporation. Of course, ancient heroes and generals, medieval ascetics and righteous people stood out from the crowd, but they were the highest example of the generally accepted. Since the Renaissance, the affirmation of the principle of uniqueness and originality of each individual begins. The Renaissance united the natural man of antiquity and the Christian understanding of the individual, endowed from above with freedom of choice.

^ The ethical and aesthetic ideal of the Renaissance is the image of a free, universal creative person creating himself.

There are many different opinions about what served as the socio-economic basis of the Renaissance. In other words, why exactly in this era did the socio-economic conditions develop for the emergence of people whose activities created a new cultural movement?

From the second half of the 19th century. (since the time of classical capitalism) The Renaissance began to be associated with the emergence of bourgeois relations and bourgeois culture. In the variety of facts of economic history, cultural life, scientific activity and artistic creativity, they began to highlight everything that could indicate the bourgeois roots of the Renaissance. Indeed, the Renaissance coincides with the beginning of capitalist production and exchange. But Europe became bourgeois only two centuries after the end of the Renaissance. The presence of capitalist elements in the economy of the Renaissance is undeniable, but they did not have a dominant position. Renaissance culture did not develop for the sake of the power of money. The political theory of the Renaissance thinkers was not the ideology of one of the classes. She strove to protect the interests of man in general. This ideal cannot be considered exclusively bourgeois.

The ideal of the hero of literature and art of the Renaissance also cannot be called bourgeois. Although Renaissance art was beginning to appeal to the common man, it recognized knights, saints, kings, and mythological characters as heroes. Although the rich townspeople became customers of works of art, they still clearly gravitated towards noble models of culture, etiquette, and life. Peasants and representatives of the urban lower classes appeared in the short story, a picaresque novel; the details of their life began to form the background of the picture, but a person from the lower classes did not become the embodiment of the Renaissance ideal. There is no bourgeois hero yet in art addressed to the whole of society. There is no doubt that the importance of popolans - merchants, bankers and artisans - grew in this society. The development of trade, industry and banking gave confidence to the third estate. It stood firmly on the ground, grew rich, believed in itself, looked at the world with different eyes. Much of what was reflected in the art of the medieval city became alien to him. Urban culture developed with an eye to knightly and church culture, but in many ways it was free and independent.

The culture of the Renaissance is the culture of free cities. Their independent development created favorable conditions for the liberation of man from the constraining framework of medieval traditions, norms and ideals.

The struggle of parties, classes, cities, the possibility of choosing a political and civil position, the opportunity social practice formed the man of the Renaissance.

To be a citizen of a free city, to participate in its management and decoration corresponded to the ambition of a city dweller. This proud feeling of a citizen encouraged him to stand out among others with power and knowledge. Thus, many patrons of the arts appeared, gifted with the extraordinary taste of amateurs, and the great cultural life of the era awoke, full of movement. Never has ambition been such a universal driver for a politician, a commander, a scientist, an artist. And there has never been a time when talent was so highly valued.

And yet, the church still played a huge role in the formation of Renaissance culture; especially in artistic creation, architecture and music. The church remained the largest customer and richest patron of the arts. Outstanding monuments of Renaissance architecture are Catholic churches (the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence by the architect Brunelleschi, St. Peter's Cathedral by the architect Bramante in Rome), paintings are altar compositions, icons, temple frescoes (“Sistine Madonna” by Raphael, “The Last Supper” Leonardo), sculptures are statues for temples and tombs (“St. George” by Donatello, “Pieta” by Michelangelo). The art of the Renaissance owes much to the papal throne. The head of the church patronized humanists - thinkers, poets, artists - and gave them honorary positions at the papal court.

Feudal monarchs and patricians also contributed to the development of art no less than municipal communes. At the courts of Italian princes, who became major patrons of the arts, special conditions were created for the creative activity of scientists and artists, sculptors and poets, philosophers and musicians.

Thus, the emergence of bourgeois relations in Europe cannot serve as a universal explanation for the unique cultural phenomenon of the Renaissance. The origins of the Renaissance go back to the multi-class culture of feudal society.

The role and relationship of various social forces that influenced the development of Renaissance culture changed over time. In new social economic conditions art appeared that transcended the boundaries of class. During the Renaissance, the democratization of culture occurs. It is acquiring a universal and pan-European character.

The chronological framework of the Italian Renaissance covers the time from the second half of the 13th century to the first half of the 16th century.

Within this period, the Renaissance is divided into several stages, which are usually designated in accordance with the names of the centuries:

Ducento (du two, cento-one hundred, i.e. two hundred years), or Proto-Renaissance, XIII century;

Trecento - continuation of the Proto-Renaissance, XIV century;

Quattrocento, or Early Renaissance, second half of the XIV-XVI centuries;

Cinquecento, or High Renaissance, end of the 15th - first third of the 16th centuries.

The European Renaissance began in Italy not only because it was facilitated by the socio-economic conditions for the development of free cities. The position of Italy at the intersection of major artistic regions of the Middle Ages (France, Germany, Spain, the Byzantine Empire), continuous wars on its territory that linked its fate with these countries, foreign (primarily Eastern) influence and the possibility of “cultural dialogue” - all this led to a diversity of cultural life and the emergence of a new original artistic culture.

The Italian Renaissance communicated its ideas and discoveries to thinkers and artists of France, Germany, England, and the Netherlands. The cultural soil on which Renaissance trends fell was very diverse. Philosophy, art, literature, absorbing innovations of the Italian Renaissance, modified many things in accordance with local tradition. The European Renaissance outside Italy, as it developed in the countries north of it, is commonly called the Northern Renaissance.

Despite the fact that the Renaissance had its own characteristics in each country, it was a common cultural phenomenon in Europe. The basis of this cultural community was the Romano-Germanic (Latin-Barbarian) synthesis. Antiquity was (albeit not equally) the common heritage of European peoples. The commonality of the universal language of culture - Latin (which the Italians had to study just as specially as the British, Germans or French), the absence of serious geographical barriers, massive interethnic contacts, dynastic ties - all this made it possible for the new culture to spread throughout Europe.

Renaissance ideas united Europe with a new way of seeing the world and a new way of representing it in artistic culture.
Questions
1. What does the term “Renaissance” mean?

2. What general features characterize the culture of the Renaissance?

4. Why is the Renaissance a transitional era from the Middle Ages to the New Age?

5. What are the socio-economic origins of the Renaissance? .

6. Why is the “new spirit” of culture created primarily in the free cities of Italy?

7. Why is the Renaissance not only an Italian, but a pan-European cultural phenomenon?

§ 2. HUMANISTIC WORLDVIEW OF THE RENAISSANCE

During the Renaissance, a new worldview was created that replaced the medieval way of thinking. It explained life in a new way, and especially the place and purpose of man in it. The very name that this worldview received reflected the reorientation of human thinking. If in the Middle Ages knowledge was part of theology and represented the study of the divine (divina studia), then the Renaissance created a new direction of thought, addressed to man and the creation of his hands (humana studia). From this term the names “humanist” and “humanism” were formed.

Renaissance humanists were not professional philosophers. These are poets and artists, writers and architects, politicians and philanthropists. It should be remembered that the concepts of “humane person” and “humanist” have completely different meanings. Humanists were, for example, the famous tyrant Lorenzo Medici, the calculating and cunning politician Niccolo Machiavelli, and the insidious and cruel Caesar Borgia. Renaissance humanists are people who think in a new way. They were engaged in politics, philosophy, rhetoric, ethics, literary and historical research, the study of ancient manuscripts, pedagogy and education. But in the process of their active and versatile life activities, a new special type of thinking was created - Renaissance humanism.

Humanism began with a decisive rejection of the medieval system of knowledge and the method of scholasticism. In the Middle Ages, science was part of theology. She was locked up in monasteries and universities, she was very elitist. Humanists believed that science should be open to people in order to bring them closer to knowledge of nature and man himself. During the Renaissance, science poses questions that turn out to be necessary and interesting for thousands of people. Humanistic science does not rebel against God, it studies the world created by him, and his main creation - man. Science ceases to be a closed craft, it becomes a cultural phenomenon of the 14th-15th centuries. The world opens up to man through the experience of life and contemplation of the beauty of the Universe. All areas of knowledge and art were linked by humanists into a single system of culture, designed to serve the interests of man and society.

Reflecting on the state of culture, humanists considered the Middle Ages to be a barbaric time of a general decline in culture and education caused by the rejection of the ancient heritage. To revive true culture, in their opinion, it was necessary to turn to the cultural experience of the ancients, to comprehend the highest manifestations of the human spirit.

At this time in Italy there were special conditions that stimulated familiarity with the philosophy, science and poetry of the ancient world. At the end of the 14th century, scientists, artists, and educated people began to come from Byzantium, which remained the guardian of ancient culture throughout the Middle Ages. Fleeing from the Ottoman Turks, they also saved their manuscript collections - the works of the ancient Greeks. Communication between the two cultures led to the enrichment of Italian universities with Greek manuscripts and the introduction of students to Greek philosophy and literature.

The revolution in public consciousness began with individuals and gradually spread to the entire society. The progress of this change can only be traced in the biographies of the first humanists. Their popularity and high authority prove that their interests coincided with public sentiment.

One of these leaders was Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), the most popular man of his time. There is a lot of evidence of how impatiently society waited for the completion of this or that treatise, poem, sonnet. Petrarch had several copyists of his works, but he did not have time to fulfill the requests of even his close friends. Orders for copying the poet’s works poured in from all sides: from the pope and emperor, from rulers, fans from Venice, Naples, Provence, France, Flanders. It was prestigious to have Petrarch's works in one's own libraries. During the poet's lifetime, Petrarch's fame crossed the borders of Italy; he was translated into European languages, he was imitated, he was commented on, and he was admired. The historical merits of the first humanist are inseparable from the cultural movement headed by Petrarch. The genius of Petrarch discovered new world humanism, indicated new directions of Renaissance thought. He created a new kind of poetry and a new style. He himself, a passionate lover and collector of ancient manuscripts, encouraged people involved in science to study samples of antiquity, he laid the foundations of Renaissance classical philology. Through his efforts, the process of restoring continuous ties with antiquity began. Petrarch revealed to the people of his time that the worlds of Christian and ancient culture are not opposed to each other, that Christianity can enrich itself by mastering the cultural heritage of the ancients. The great humanist of the Renaissance convinced that mastering the entire wealth of culture opens the path to truth. Through the richness of his inner world, a person gains a connection with God and joins in effective love for his neighbor. In his opinion, it is culture that is called upon to realize the highest unity of human society.

This comprehensively educated, sincere believer, selflessly devoted to science and literature, in love with antiquity, noble, beautiful both internally and externally, an outstanding person had an extraordinary impact on the spiritual culture of his contemporary society. Fervor for science spread everywhere, libraries were compiled, new departments and universities were founded, ancient sources were found, fragments of ancient marbles were collected and studied. The “desire for culture” began to be clearly felt in society.

Petrarch's worldview was cast into refined artistic forms. Petrarch's creative legacy is enormous.

His poetry is an achievement of new Renaissance art, he is a poet of inner life, accurate description feelings. Renaissance poetry begins with his “Book of Songs” (“Canzoniere”), written in vernacular Italian. The book is dedicated to Laura, the poet’s beloved. Cosmic Dantean love in Petrarch's poems descended to earth. Petrarch discovered in man those feelings that have since come to be called love in Europe, and this was one of the greatest discoveries of the Renaissance.

And yet Petrarch's poetry, despite its high aesthetic value, is inferior to his prose from a historical point of view. Those of his ideas and aspirations that have world-historical significance are expressed mainly in prose. These are treatises “On the ignorance of one’s own and many other people”, “On remedies against all fate”, “On a solitary life”, works of the biographical genre “My Secret”, “About Famous People”, epistolary cycles “Letters without an address”, etc. .

General characteristic Petrarch's prose and poetry - individualism. His worldview and his faith in God are imbued with individualism. Personal religiosity, unlike the medieval one, inherent in ancient Christian desert ascetics, turned out to be possible in the 14th century. Interest in individual life, a thorough analysis of its aspects, interest in the human personality underlies the attitude of humanists to science, religion and art.

Belief in the power of the human word, the power of the individual in creating social orders also underlies their political views. The direction of civic humanism was particularly interested in social and political problems. Humanists of this trend (Florentines Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati, Alamanno Rinuccini, Venetians Sabellino, Giustiniani, etc.) put forward a new understanding of the role of man in the life of society and the state. If in the political teachings of the Middle Ages the unity of society was considered impossible without monarchical power, then in civil humanism the idea of personal freedom, equality of citizens before the law, and the principle of the common good, the guarantor of which is the republic, were affirmed. Only in a well-organized state is the moral improvement of man and society and the comprehensive development of culture possible. The idea of a harmonious society, which, according to humanists, can only exist in free city-states, was developed in political treatises, architectural projects ideal city, historical works, poetic panegyrics.

The new Renaissance culture was first most powerfully expressed in words. In Italy, literature arose with a new worldview, breaking away from medieval concepts of life.

Many ideas of Petrarch and the first humanists were reflected in the works of Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). His poetry is directed towards life. He laid the foundation for the Renaissance short story. Boccaccio wrote all his works in Italian, using popular speech patterns. His most significant work - “The Decameron” (the ancient Greek title of the work in Russian is “Ten Days”) - unites one hundred short stories told over ten days by girls and boys from noble families who secluded themselves on the outskirts of Florence during the plague epidemic. The short stories reflect the real diversity of life in all the richness of its manifestations. His characters are people of different characters, professions, social status, who value the earthly joys of life. Boccaccio introduced a new literary form of the realistic story, the short story, in which the traditions of urban satire and courtly love are intertwined. The book “Decameron” gained great popularity in Italy and was translated into French in the 14th century. English languages, its plots were often borrowed by European writers.

The humanistic worldview of the Renaissance did not at all represent a single ideology. But no matter what problems were discussed in humanistic circles, no matter what the controversy was about, man remained the center of their thinking. Some aspects of the personality problem were revealed through lyrics and works of painting, others - through philological and philosophical treatises.

The general conclusion of the Renaissance humanists was the recognition of the limitless creative possibilities of man in improving himself and the world around him.

The manifesto of the High Renaissance was the treatise by Giovanni Pico Della Mirandolla (1463-1490), an outstanding philosopher and brilliant expert on ancient thought, “Speech on the Dignity of Man.” Mirandolla says that God, elevating man above other creations, gives him free will, the exclusive ability to shape himself. Man himself determines his place in the world - either he rises above nature through intellect and morality, or, having surrendered to the power of the flesh, he descends to an animal. He shapes his own appearance: cleanses the soul of passion, achieves harmony in the inner world and experiences the beauty of nature.

The doctrine of the dignity of the human person was the basis for the political, ethical, social and especially aesthetic views of the humanists of the High Renaissance. Mirandolla, with poetic inspiration, expressed the main idea connecting the ideology of humanism and all the art of the Renaissance - this is an affirmation of the greatness and beauty of man.

A humanistic view of man and the world around him created a favorable spiritual environment for the development of an artistic culture that was new in form and content.
Questions
1. Explain the origin of the term “humanism”.

2. Are the words “humanist” and “humane person” the same in meaning?

3. What historical events stimulated the acquaintance of Italian humanists with ancient culture?

4. Why is humanism a new type of thinking?

5. What was the ideal of a cultured person during the Renaissance?

6. Why did a new vision of the world create conditions for the emergence of a new artistic system?

§ 3. MAIN FEATURES OF RENAISSANCE ART

The transition to a new perception of the world and man contributed to radical changes in art. To experience the world in a new way means to see it in a new way. Over the course of several decades, the entire visual system of art, which had developed over centuries, changed.

On the other hand, art played a huge historical role in the cultural revolution that took place during the Renaissance. This is confirmed by the fact that for three centuries the Renaissance was understood only as “the revival of the fine arts.” And among modern people, the culture of the Renaissance is associated primarily with the art of painting, sculpture, and architecture.

Renaissance art is rightly considered the most important manifestation of the era. It was art that embodied the essence of the Renaissance worldview: the new position of man in the world. The Renaissance artist, like the Creator, creates existence himself. The key to successful creative activity is scientific knowledge of the laws of divine nature. Renaissance artists required a wide range of humanities and natural scientific knowledge: mythology and history, anatomy and mathematics, geometry and drawing. During the Renaissance, the ability to see was inseparable from the ability to think.

Outstanding artists, sculptors, and architects of the Renaissance were active philosophers, talented writers and poets, and brave engineers. Evidence of this is the poetry of Michelangelo, the scientific treatises of Leonardo da Vinci, and the philosophical reflections of Petprarka.

The art of the Renaissance became not only a mirror of new ideas about the value of the individual and the beauty of the earthly world, but also a tool of knowledge.

Convinced that the visible world obeys natural laws, artists began to use scientific knowledge and technical tools in their work. A technique for copying objects of the visible world was invented, and the foundations of promising mathematical constructions of space were developed. Based on this knowledge, the method of direct perspective in painting was invented.

The artistic method of the Middle Ages viewed objects sequentially, often changing the point of view when moving to another subject. The drawing was constructed as if, when looking at its different parts, the eye changed its place. A building, for example, could have two side walls shown at once, each with its own special center of perspective. Moreover, the scale of each individual image depended on the degree of its importance for understanding the inner meaning of the whole. The figure of the Virgin Mary, for example, could be twice as tall as the people around her. Techniques for constructing angles in which the vanishing point lies not on the horizon line, but “in the viewer’s eye” are collectively called reverse perspective.

The medieval pictorial system never set out to create illusionistic constructions that create a semblance of the real world. Medieval art created not likenesses, but symbols; it sought to embody not the visible, but the supersensible world. Religious and aesthetic experiences were embodied in the forms of conventional canonical art. Artists did not depict things, but their signs, conventional images. The Middle Ages developed its own method of artistic interpretation of the world. Objects in it were considered in isolation from each other, sequentially. The point of view often changed when moving to another object.

During the Renaissance, the orientation of art changed. It spoke to a person in the real world. The “discovery of the world” in literature and painting corresponded to its perception at the beginning of the 14th century.

For the realistic life understanding of modern man, the value of art is not in penetration into the supersensible world, but in reflecting the real surrounding world. Therefore, the art of the New Age, which underlies the modern artistic vision of the world, creates fundamentally new techniques.

The new art of painting included three main ideas:

The events depicted in the picture were divided into two plans: foreground and background, with their gradual filling in the future with intermediate plans;

The size of the bodies, the brightness of the tone and the distinctness of figures and boundaries decrease as the bodies move away;

The visual rays and the pictorial space converge into one point, which in Renaissance painting usually coincides with the center of the frame and the subject.

These basic requirements for perspective were formulated by Leonardo da Vinci in his famous Book of Painting.

Direct perspective was known back in antiquity, in the 5th century BC, but was used mainly in painting theatrical scenery. It is not that the Greeks did not notice the perspective reductions inherent in normal vision, or that they failed to derive corresponding simple applications from the elementary theorems of geometry. Apparently, they did not apply the rules of perspective out of some internal motives emanating from the requirements of pure art.

The three-dimensionality of the world and its convergence to the point of infinity, what seems obvious and natural to us, began to be perceived in painting only in the Renaissance.

It took more than a decade for the eye to become accustomed to the new vision in direct perspective.

In addition to the invention of direct perspective, the Renaissance opens up new themes in the visual arts and creates new genres. Not only religious, but also mythological and historical subjects have become worthy subjects for art.

“The eye embraces the beauty of the whole world.” These words of Leonardo may be the formula for a new visual approach to the world.

This approach gave rise to talk about the secular, worldly nature of art, which, however, did not mean irreligion. Religious feeling during the Renaissance took on new forms, new faces. Renaissance artists treasured the world in which they lived. Everything they admired in life, they considered worthy of reflection in the depiction of sacred history. On the canvases dedicated to biblical scenes, we see the world that they admired: the beauty of women, their exquisite hairstyles and outfits, the valor and strength of men, rich fabrics and magnificent harnesses of horses, landscapes with silhouettes of pine trees against the backdrop of blue hills, elegant palaces and luxurious interior decoration, spacious squares of Italian cities.

Painters painted images of the Mother of God from ordinary women, sometimes famous in the city, preserving the features of portrait resemblance. They transferred the scene of the birth of Mary to the interior of a rich Italian palazzo, depicted themselves and their fellow citizens at a meal in Cana of Galilee, in the procession of the Magi, instead of the Gospel pilgrims, they showed a luxurious cortege of Florentine horsemen in gilded robes, accompanied by heralds, grooms and dogs.

The love of life and curiosity of Renaissance artists often resulted in a passion for detail, for the depiction of various objects with which artists filled their compositions, sometimes to the detriment of the integrity of the plot. With utmost care they painted out every detail of the ornament, every feather in the angel's wings, every curl on the curly head. In the paintings depicting scenes from the Holy Scriptures, we look at vases with flowers, birds, complex woven patterns of dresses, precious stones, carved armrests of chairs, and musical instruments.

The art of the Renaissance created a new artistic reality. This process took place in line with the formation of a new aesthetics. An aesthetic reaction to the world, nature, ideas is the core of the worldview of this era. The Renaissance created a special atmosphere of aestheticism; it is not without reason that it is called the Golden Age of European art. The desire for aesthetic experience, aesthetic pleasure distinguishes the Renaissance from all other eras. In no other European country in any other era have people invested so much effort and material resources into art as they did in Italy during the Renaissance. In this era, spectacular entertainment was the most beloved. The Italians had something to see. It is difficult to imagine the splendor of the setting and costumes at that time. On days of great holidays and celebrations, the halls of palaces, churches, facades of houses and squares were hung and covered with velvet, brocade, and rare carpets. Colored precious fabrics cascaded from the high ceilings, covering huge surfaces. During processions in Venice, hundreds of gondolas were decorated with scarlet silk. How much pearls, lace, velvet, gold, and precious stones were needed to dress the several thousand retinue following the Duke as he toured the country!

At this time, important changes were taking place in society's attitude towards art. The church and the state remain the traditional customers of works of architecture, painting and sculpture, but the circle of secular customers from among the court aristocracy and wealthy citizens is significantly expanding, and patronage of the arts is flourishing. At the courts of the Italian princes, a special cultural environment developed in which artists and musicians, poets and architects of the Renaissance interacted.

From the end of the 14th century, artists began to write about art, create treatises, textbooks, and discuss issues of theory and practice in literary works. The theory of fine arts arose as a special field of knowledge.

Humanists introduced into the public consciousness the idea of creativity as the prototype of any free activity. Understanding of art, good taste become required quality every educated person. The artist turned from a medieval artisan into an intellectual. Masters of the High Renaissance arts met the highest demands of society. Many of them were highly educated

By the time “Total Football” was released (October 2005), there was no specialized football magazine in Russia that would achieve self-sufficiency and be published consistently without the threat of closure, and therefore “TF” had a primary task - to attract advertisers. A year and a half earlier, the universal magazine “PROsport” appeared on the market, which, according to its editor-in-chief Stanislav Gridasov, had already begun to shape the advertising market for the sports press, and in fact “TF” came to a prepared (but not yet fully formed) environment. A sports monthly of this level and quality had to compete not so much with the universal “PROsport”, which was published in a different format, but with monthly men’s magazines such as “Men’s Health”.

This stage in the development of the sports press was one of the most favorable for the development of the press of all that were in the process of forming sports periodicals: the economy stabilized and developed, the press was free from any pressure from the state. In this regard, a high-quality competitive environment. Here I would like to note the characteristic attitude of the editor-in-chief of the monthly magazine in question, Nikolai Roganov, to this state of affairs. In the editor's column, through an allusion to football clubs, the editor-in-chief expresses his thoughts on competition among sports magazines: “Chelsea, of course, has not yet won the Champions League, but for a long time no longer lives by the laws of the football business.<…>Of course, the club is counting the money, but minus 204 million is not a problem for them at all.<…>Our magazine has a competitor. Also, by the way, living on Abramovich’s money. And also not counting them.<…>He, like the magazine competing with us, will still not run out of money.<…>The worst thing is that projects like Chelsea and its competitor magazine corrupt the market. The first – with gigantic salaries of football players, the second – with unreasonably high royalties” (Appendix 9).

This column is most likely talking about the PROSport magazine, because at that time it was purchased by the Around the World Publishing House, part of which was controlled by Roman Abramovich. You can talk about ethics and morality, but in this case the important thing is that such competition, such an investment of big money, big fees were possible only in favorable economic conditions, which developed at the stage under consideration.

600 thousand dollars were spent on the launch of Total Football, but few believed that this project would be successful. The president of one of the large publishing houses “Seven Days” Dmitry Biryukov noted skeptically: “I don’t see advertisers for such products. All specialized sports advertisers: Nike, Sportmaster are placed on television, and it is almost impossible to pull them away from there. Maybe over time fitness centers will be advertised there, but for now their advertising budgets are very small.” Contrary to the skepticism of his contemporaries, “Total Football” found its niche and contributed to the development of the sports press advertising market and existed until 2013.

This publication set a standard that magazines published in previous years could only dream of. The components of success include the high quality of paper, photographs, texts and approach to thematic content - all this gave the magazine great advertising opportunities. The motto of the publication was a phrase coined by editor-in-chief Nikolai Roganov: “Football as a passion.” In “Total Football” the emphasis was placed on the emotional presentation of materials and, most importantly, on illustrations.

The publisher of the magazine was the media company Gameland, which previously specialized in publishing computer-related magazines: “Hacker”, “Land of Games”, etc. In fact, the publication about football stood out from the general theme of the publishing house, but in this case the experience of publishing successful magazines in principle was important, which could be applied to the launch of a football project. The experience of the British football publication FourFourTwo was taken as a basis. Initially, there were plans to buy a license to publish this British magazine, which involved adapting the publication for Russian readers, borrowing designs, exchanging texts, etc. When preparing the pilot issue, some ideas from the British magazine were already used. The license purchase did not take place: the parties did not agree on financial issue. However, four FourFourTwo columns remained in Total Football: TF Moment, Recap, Stupid Questions and Head to Head.

It was assumed that the circulation of the publication would be 150 thousand copies, but it was decided to release the first issue (January 2006) with a circulation of 80 thousand, then increase to 100 (already in the second issue), and in July 2006 the number of copies of one issue reached 150 thousand copies, within a year the circulation had doubled. For 6 years, the circulation remained unchanged - 300 thousand copies. But the number of pages changed: the pilot issue was published on 124 pages, then the number decreased to 116, and for six months the magazine was published in this volume. Then, with the increase in circulation, the number of pages also increased - 132. In issue No. 6 of 2008, Nikolai Roganov said that in his opinion, the magazine has too much advertising and not enough text, which does not contribute to improving the quality and interest of the magazine, in connection with this, it was decided to increase the volume to 144 pages, and a further release with exactly this number was planned. However, the world financial crisis did not allow the plans to be realized: by the end of 2008, the magazine again began to appear on 116 pages.

From the first issue, Nikolai Roganov was appointed editor-in-chief, who was involved in developing the concept of the magazine at the initial stages. At first, mostly young journalists worked in the publication, although experienced ones were also involved - from Sovetsky Sport, Sport-Express. Among the interesting names, I would like to note that Ilya Azar began his journalistic career at Total Football as an editor. Also working in the publication were Dmitry Rogovitsky, Andrey Belov, Alexander Kavokin and others.

“Total Football” was designed for the mass reader: football fans. This is manifested in a certain “encyclopedic” nature of the publication: it can be picked up by a person who does not watch all the football matches of the championship, and this reader will not feel uncomfortable, because much attention in the magazine was given to explaining the details. However, in connection with this, there was a decrease in the degree of attractiveness of the text for a trained reader. The editor-in-chief of Total Footbal himself spoke about this: “I won’t say that all our texts are published at the highest level.<…>The second thing I can tell our critics is: if they are not satisfied with the quality of the texts in Total Football, then perhaps this is simply not their magazine. And their magazine is PROsport.” The peculiarity of the texts of the universal magazine “PROsport” is precisely that they are written without detailed description background and details of an event. “Total Football” relied on the average football fan. Moreover, throughout almost the entire existence of the magazine (since the circulation reached 300 thousand), the audience of one issue fluctuated around half a million readers.

We classify the magazine as a subtype of popular illustrated publication, and this is the first specialized magazine that 100% corresponds to the characteristics implied by this definition. The illustrations in Total Football are as important as the texts. Nikolai Roganov emphasized: “We have passion, the emotional component comes first. This is expressed in texts and photographs. They should be full of emotional content, there should be corresponding photographs.” In an average issue, a quarter of the issue is occupied by pages containing only photographs. Other pages with texts also have large, high-quality photographs. For example, the “TF Moment” section (Appendix 10) stood out, in which the most striking photographs from football matches over the past month were published. It took up three spreads, and attracted attention with the quality of its execution: at one time it was even sponsored by Nikon.

The content of the magazine was focused primarily on entertaining the reader: from the first issues, the Body Art section appeared, which published photographs of naked women painted in the uniforms of various football clubs. The magazine also contained a large number of reference materials that explained in detail, using infographics, the tactical nuances of a team’s game, the technique of football feints, etc.

The decrease in the number of information genres was most clearly noticeable in the publication: 32.1% of the total number of journalistic texts in the average issue of the magazine. At the same time, there are only two such genres - blitz interviews (on average 2 per issue) and reference materials (7.3 per issue) were actively used, which tell about emblems, clubs, football players, the history of fan movements, etc. The magazine generally lacked news and statistics, data on match results: because this magazine was aimed specifically at shaping a view of football, and not at informing the reader.

Analytics is present in large volumes in the publication - it accounted for 54.9% of all texts in the issue. On average, 5.6 interviews appeared in an issue: analytical and portrait. It is interesting that since 2008 there have been fewer large interviews: this is largely due to the closeness of representatives of the football community. Previously, when football in Russia was just gaining popularity, it was not difficult to interview a football player or coach: they themselves made contact. The editor-in-chief of the largest sports portal Sports.ru, Yuri Dud, called our time the age of “numerous press services that remove a lot of interesting things from interviews.” Now, in order to interview a famous athlete, you need to wait for a response from the club’s press service, send it for proofreading, etc. As a result, they become less interesting, and the number of interviews decreases (for example, in 2013, the average issue of “TF” had only 2 interviews).

Also, in the period 2006-2008, an average of three columns appeared in the magazine: editor-in-chief Nikolai Roganov, sports commentator Viktor Gusev and one of the publication’s journalists. The columns, as a rule, expressed the journalist’s own opinion on some problem or event that received great resonance. Viktor Gusev wrote his column in the style of a “diary”: he talked about the events that happened to him during his work as a commentator.

Less attention was paid to reports: during the period under review, on average, only 1.5 of them were published per issue. This could be due to the fact that at first the editorial office did not have the opportunity to send journalists on business trips. However, there were enough reportage photographs in the publication, which correlates with the concept - to display the emotional component of football. In a larger volume, analytical correspondence and articles appeared on the pages, in which this or that tactical scheme or game, team tactics and the actions of specific players were analyzed. On average there are 4 such texts in one issue.

Separately, it is worth noting the emerging genre of review. Journalists wrote reviews of books, films, and games dedicated to football. This move is interesting because, trusting the journalist’s opinion, the reader will become involved in his interests. Moreover, in this way the editors helped the audience to refuse to buy other publications in which they could read similar materials. On average, 2.6 reviews appeared in one issue.

As in magazines of previous periods, essays continued to appear in TF: memories of football players, games, matches (on average 4 essays per issue). The popularity of this genre and similar texts can be explained by the undiminished interest in the legends of domestic and world football, the desire of readers to learn about memorable matches and dates.

It is also interesting to note the emergence of interactivity in the magazine: the editors of “Total Football” not only published letters from readers, now they also answered them in an ironic style. And for the best letter, the reader received some kind of prize from the magazine’s partner. This approach to communicating with readers has become unique for the modern period of development of the sports press.

Attracts attention and innovation in the design of magazine covers, both in visual and thematically. Firstly, unlike other magazines of the previous stages, “Total Football” does not have reportage shots on the cover; it only contained high-quality staged photographs of football players, coaches, etc. Secondly, the selection of heroes for the covers of the monthly magazine was carried out according to the principle that can roughly be called “the one who is talked about in the world of football.” For example, in issue No. 9 of 2006, on the cover is Evgeniy Aldonin, appointed captain of the Russian national team, who successfully played for CSKA. As a hero, he was interesting to fans, and therefore attractive to buyers.

In addition, “Total Football” became the first magazine that began to make different covers: one for Moscow and the regions, the other for St. Petersburg (Appendix 11). That is, the content of the issue itself remained the same, but the covers were prepared differently. As the editor-in-chief explained, this was done so that the reader would buy a magazine with a portrait of the person he was rooting for. It was assumed that if the experiment was successful, covers would be produced for other cities. The catalyst for such an experiment was cover No. 1 of 2006, which was published throughout the country: it depicted Vladimir Bystrov. In the summer of 2005, the football player moved from St. Petersburg Zenit to Moscow Spartak, which the fans of the St. Petersburg team could not forgive and insulted the midfielder in every possible way. In this regard, by placing Vladimir Bystrov on the cover of the issue, the editors assumed that the magazine would most likely cause a negative reaction from St. Petersburg readers, and replaced the portrait of Bystrov with a portrait of Alexander Kerzhakov, an interview with whom was also published in this issue. The experiment did not go further than St. Petersburg, but, nevertheless, special covers appeared until 2010. It is worth noting that this move was not used for every issue, but only when it made a certain sense: when a new Zenit coach was appointed, when on the cover federal number was put on a Spartak player or when the issue contained a text about a football player popular in St. Petersburg.

From the first issue, a large number of advertisements appeared in the magazine: on average, 15 pages were allocated for it. In addition, smaller format modules (1/2, 1/3, 1/4 pages) appeared, as well as advertising projects: for example, competitions from Nivea, Gazprom and TTK. It is worth noting the special profiling of advertising, which emphasized the focus on a wealthy male audience: the magazine featured advertisements from companies such as Nissan, Pioneer, Samsung, Nike, Chevrolet, etc. A considerable amount of advertising was occupied by advertising of alcohol and tobacco products - vodka, whiskey, cigarettes, cigars .

Thanks to this amount of advertising, the magazine managed to achieve self-sufficiency and overcome the global economic crisis without significant losses. "Total Football" appeared in an economically stable period, unlike its predecessors. During the existence of the magazine, it never had any disruptions in its release schedule: it consistently appeared in newsstands and stores every month. In fact, the magazine began to exist on advertising revenue, since income from sales and subscriptions was not so great. In fact, he formed a completely new approach to shaping the content and appearance of a sports publication - about football as a lifestyle. It is no coincidence that it attracted the attention of respectable advertisers who appreciated the magazine's predominant audience - accomplished, successful men, managers and specialists from Moscow, St. Petersburg and other large cities. The content and design of the magazine, intended for such a demanding reader, inevitably had to reach a qualitatively different level than everything that was done in the 1990s, and all the conditions of the fourth stage contributed to this.