Environmental policy in developed and developing countries. The influence of the state's environmental policy on the country's status in the world economy. Global environmental policy
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3
Chapter 1. Environmental policy: theoretical foundations………………………4
1.1.Environmental policy: legal aspects………………………4
1.2.History of the formation of environmental policy………………….6
Chapter 2. EU environmental policy……………………………………….….11
2.1. History of the adoption of environmental policy in the EU...................................11
2.2.Main directions of environmental policy in the EU……………13
Chapter 3. Regional environmental policy in the EU………………………....15
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….…24
List of references…………………………………………………………….25
Introduction
Environmental management in the world today requires new approaches to solve pressing environmental problems.
The unfavorable state of modern environmental management is largely due to the ineffective use of natural resources, which is a consequence of the government's inconsistent environmental policy, ignorance of adopted environmental laws and federal programs, underestimation of planning issues and real financing of environmental activities in budgets of all levels.
The policies of advanced foreign countries have allowed them to firmly conquer the world markets of industrial and agricultural products, become leaders in the economy and environmental business, and strengthen national security.
The environmental policy of foreign countries is consistent and focused; it is an integral part of the general state policy of states. “Green” business in these countries has become the main mechanism for resource conservation, the introduction of new environmental technologies and the improvement of the environment and population.
Environmental protection in the USA, Canada, and EU countries has become a profitable business for leading corporations and firms (for 1 dollar invested they receive a profit of 5 to 10 dollars).
The purpose of my course work is to study regional environmental policy.
The tasks we set in my course work:
Learn what it is “ Environmental Policy”;
Review and study EU Environmental Policy;
Study and review regional environmental policies in EU countries.
Chapter 1. Environmental policy: theoretical foundations
1.1.Environmental policy: legal aspects
Environmental policy - This is a system of measures related to the targeted impact of society on nature in order to prevent the minimization or elimination of the negative consequences of such impact for humans and nature.
Tasks state environmental policy:
Preservation of the restoration of natural systems, their biological diversity and ability to self-regulation, as a necessary condition for the existence of human society.
Ensuring rational use of natural resources and equal access to natural resources for living and future generations of people.
Ensuring a favorable state of the environment as a necessary condition for improving the quality of life and health.
Principles formation of state environmental policy in the field of environmental protection and development:
Right to development;
Common property;
State responsibility;
Common but differentiated responsibilities;
Equal access to justice;
Prohibition of discrimination regarding the location of “dirty industries”
Main directions of state environmental policy:
Rehabilitation of environmentally unfavorable areas;
Greening education, upbringing, and media activities;
Ensuring sanitary and epidemiological safety of the population;
The international cooperation.
Improving government regulation, environmental protection and environmental management;
Development of scientific support for state environmental policy;
Ensuring environmentally safe development of industrial complexes of the national economy;
Sources of environmental policy :
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948 UN in New York);
Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975)
Paris Party for a New Europe (1990)
World Charter for Nature (1982)
The Brutland Report - Our Common Future, published by the World Commission on Environment;
UN document and conference on environmental issues;
Intergovernmental Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Ecology and Environmental Protection in the CIS (1992);
1.2.History of the formation of environmental policy.
Currently, humanity has really realized the need to take care of the natural environment. The laws by which nature develops have always existed, and only at the end of the twentieth century. people practically realized their contradiction with the main directions of social life, trying to do something to resurrect the lost, correct the damaged, prevent and limit further destruction of nature.
Maintaining ecological balance on the planet requires political will and great efforts from all countries. The manifestation of such efforts must begin with a qualitatively new relationship between nature and society. Environmental education and upbringing is a long process: it is necessary to change the stable “conquering” attitude towards nature.
After all, everything that a person can create to satisfy his needs, he borrows from nature. Man cannot exist as a biological species without consuming natural resources, which means he cannot live without the natural environment as the natural basis of his existence.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the state-administrative approach to nature conservation took a strong position in most countries. If in the early 70s. XX century There were no more than 10 countries in which there were government bodies regulating various aspects of the relationship between society and nature, then in the mid-1970s. there were already more than 60 of them, and by the beginning of the 1980s. - more than 100 countries. 1
It should be noted that at the same time the number of non-governmental organizations and environmental institutions increased: by the beginning of the 1990s. there were more than 15 thousand “green” organizations in the world, representing tens of millions of people. Legal means of regulation are actively growing: industrially developed countries have their own sets and codes of environmental legislation - individual countries have 100-300 environmental acts. Quite strict government and legal measures in the USA, Germany, Japan and other countries are fully justified and necessary in modern conditions of a rapidly developing economy and deteriorating environmental quality.
UNEP experts (under the UN) believe that the overall quality of the natural environment for the period 1982-2000. has not improved, but, on the contrary, the condition of a number of natural objects and environmental components (air, water, soil) is rapidly and irreversibly deteriorating.
Therefore, the main task of world civilization in the present period is the 21st century. - to find a middle ground that would allow us to combine the needs of nature and society in ecological balance.
At the UN International Conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, a package of the most important documents on the development of human civilization in the 21st century was adopted. and for the first time it was concluded that the current market-consumer model of environmental management is rapidly leading to the degradation of nature and the death of humans as a biological species on Earth.
Therefore, now, more than ever in the history of mankind on the planet, it is important to pursue a reasonable environmental and economic policy in each country, combining macroeconomic development goals with the rational use of natural resources, carrying out a set of environmental programs and activities, resource conservation and the introduction of environmental management that is environmentally safe for humans and environment and environmental management.
For the 20th century The planet's population increased 3.1 times (from 1.9 to 6.1 billion people), the gross world product increased 350 times (up to 40 trillion dollars), the volume of fresh water consumption - 11 times, the area of arable land - 2 times. Over the same period, the area of deserts increased by 156 million hectares, and the area of forests decreased by 7.5 million square meters. km, the number of plant and animal species decreased by 20%. There are only 37 million square meters left on Earth undisturbed by human activity. km (28%), and humanity consumes up to 40% of pure primary production, of which no more than 10% is used for consumption, and 30% is destroyed and goes to waste. The technosphere doubled in area and 12-14 times in power, while the land biosphere decreased by 15%. In the 20th century humanity has exceeded the permissible limit - the threshold of disturbance of the biosphere, evidence of this is the fundamental changes in the environment (air, water, soil, global climate change). The ecological crisis on Earth is deepening, and the cause of the crisis is man, who has become a powerful geological force, which was predicted by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in the doctrine “On the noosphere”.
According to the UN, the number of hungry people on the planet has increased to 2 billion people over the past 5 years. (1/3 of the total population), unemployment and the number of refugees are growing, mainly for environmental reasons. Currently, 3 main centers of destabilization of the natural environment have formed on the planet:
North American (USA, Canada, Mexico), producing 1/3 of all OS pollution;
Euro-Asian (1/3 of all pollution);
Southeast Asian (1/6 of all pollution).
The centers of environmental stabilization are Canada and Russia (in the North), Amazonia and Australia (in the South), where undisturbed, virgin territories account for 50-60%.
The annual damage from air pollution in France is 1% of GNP, in the Netherlands - 2%. In the United States, the cost of treating air pollution exceeds $10 billion per year.
In Germany, losses from the destruction of the OS in 1986 were estimated at 103.5 billion marks, and by 2000 the damage amounted to 180 billion marks, or 10% of GDP.
In the European Union, environmental damage is estimated at 3-5% of GDP, and in Japan - 13.8% of GDP.
According to the EU (Brussels), natural disasters during the period from 1965 to 1992 (27 years) caused a total of $340 billion in damage worldwide.
Over the past 30 years, the number of disasters in the world has increased more than 4 times. According to EU experts, the greatest damage is caused by floods (32%), tropical storms (30%), drought (22%), and earthquakes (10%).
In developed countries, damage is estimated at more than $1,000 per person, in developing countries - $9 per person, which is explained by the higher level of material values in developed countries.
Currently, there are about 1,000 nuclear facilities for peaceful and military purposes in the world, more than 5 ½ 104 nuclear weapons, and up to 8 ½ 104 tons of chemical weapons.
According to the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation, from 1993 to 1999, 1,350 man-made and natural emergencies occurred annually in Russia, the damage in only one year, 1999, exceeded 21 billion rubles, 25% of the damage was attributed to man-made and up to 80% to natural emergencies.
The approximate socio-economic damage in the Russian Federation is estimated for the year: for hydrometeorological factors - 30-48 billion rubles, for geological factors (soil erosion, flooding, destruction of banks) - 80-90 billion rubles.
The total annual aggregate material damage in Russia from emergency situations, taking into account the costs of eliminating the consequences, is estimated at 100-125 billion rubles. (40% from man-made and 60% from natural), which is 1% of GDP.
The World Conservation Fund reported (2002) that by 2050, if humanity does not change its relationship with natural resources, we (earthlings) will need two Earth-sized planets to relocate to.
According to the Foundation's specialists, over the past 30 years, humanity has spent 1/3 of the resources available on Earth. Thus, if in 1970 the volume of cod stocks in the Atlantic was estimated at 274 thousand tons, now it is 4.5 times less - 60 thousand tons. Over the same years, the planet’s forests decreased by 12%, and the number of species of living organisms in rivers and lakes of Europe - by 55%. If we take the quality of the Earth's ecosystems in 1970 as 100, now this figure has dropped to 65. The number of many species of mammals, birds, reptiles and fish has more than halved.
State disaster. "Global environmental politicians does not yet exist, it is... the Kaiser Research Group in 2000. V countries EU for the development of technologies for the protection...
The climate is changing - few will argue with this statement. Climate change is associated with a whole set of problems and contradictions of the modern world economy: the worsening shortage of fresh water and food, the problem of natural disasters and epidemics and related migration. The future vector of development and global competitiveness of key sectors in the economy of each country, such as energy and power engineering, automotive manufacturing, aircraft manufacturing and agriculture, also depend on the government’s climate policy and specific support programs aimed at its implementation.
Who is to blame and what to do?
Trying to determine whether humans are to blame for climate change on the planet seems futile. One of the key principles of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is that lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason to delay action to prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its negative impacts.
Over the past 10–12 years, the countries of the European Union, Japan, and a little later the USA, China, and India have tried to develop government support mechanisms and develop a legislative framework for the development of “clean” and resource-saving technologies and solutions in the energy sector, automotive industry, production of building materials, water supply and waste recycling .
Public policy is the basis
According to Akim Steiner, UN Under-Secretary-General, the overall effect of setting government goals, providing legislative support and allocating funds to renewable energy is the continued growth of alternative energy and brings about a desperately needed transformation of the global energy system.
The importance of government support can hardly be overestimated; it was with the first programs adopted in the 1990s in Japan, Germany, and Denmark that the development of the commercial alternative energy market began. The first programs to support solar energy appeared in Japan, this is the “70,000 solar roofs” program in 1994, in Germany this is the “100,000 solar roofs” program in 1999, since then both countries have confidently remained in the top five countries with the largest number of solar panels.
The main forms of support for the renewable energy sector are listed in tables 1 and 2. As practice and analysis of European experience show, feed-in tariffs are the most effective measure to accelerate the alternative energy sector.
The so-called clean industry, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, includes a large number of technologies and affects many industries. Currently, the main focus is on energy and reducing CO2 emissions by increasing energy efficiency, the share of renewable energy sources and the spread of smart technologies (Smart Grid concept) in power grids. After all, the energy sector accounts for the bulk of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
Germany is ahead of the rest
Germany can safely be called a pioneer in the development of renewable energy. The German Renewable Energy Act, introduced in 2000, gave the necessary impetus to the development of alternative energy not only in Europe but throughout the world. The main mechanism of the law is “green” tariffs, differentiated by technology and decreasing over time. The law acts as a tool for the implementation of ambitious goals aimed at increasing:
– share of renewable electricity up to 35% by 2020 and 80% by 2050;
– share of renewable primary energy up to 18% by 2020, up to 30% by 2030 and up to 60% by 2050;
– energy efficiency in order to consume no more than 50% of 2008 levels by 2050.
Germany has taken a comprehensive approach to solving the problem, simplifying as much as possible the resolution of administrative and legal issues, such as obtaining permission to connect to networks, consent of environmentalists and local governments, etc. As a result, in 2010 it ranked 1st in the commissioning of solar capacity and 3rd in wind energy in the world.
The development of alternative energy has contributed to the creation of new jobs, stimulated the country's economic development and consolidated the leadership of German companies in the dynamically developing green innovation industry.
UK harnesses wind and sea power
Until 2010, the UK operated a quota system (ROC - Renewable Obligation Certificate), according to which part of the electricity supplied by energy companies must be “green”. This system was introduced in 2002, but proved to be ineffective due to the presence of bureaucratic delays in the process of approving projects with the population, which could delay the start of construction of facilities for several years.
In 2010, feed-in tariffs were introduced for some types of renewable energy, which immediately revitalized the market. For example, solar tariffs have led to a boom in the market for solar panels and installation services, even though the UK is not the sunniest country in Europe.
The sea is one of the UK's most significant sources of renewable energy. The development of offshore wind energy, as well as technologies for the energy of waves, ebbs and flows - these are the areas of alternative energy that the government of the country is relying on. In the long term, the program includes the creation of new jobs in the country and the export of technology and know-how.
USA – act locally
Having avoided ratifying the Kyoto Protocol, the United States nevertheless did not remain aloof from the “green” march. States, municipalities and companies created their own programs and initiatives to support and develop energy conservation and renewable energy. After Barack Obama came to power, the principles of climate policy rose from the regional to the federal level.
The Obama-Biden New Energy for America plan aims to reach 10% renewable electricity by 2012 and 25% by 2025. It is planned to allocate $150 billion in federal funds to promote private initiatives to build a “clean” future. Another $50 billion is planned to be invested in “clean” energy as part of the anti-crisis plan “Creating Jobs Using Clean, Efficient American Energy.”
Table 3 examines the types of legislative initiatives in key states.
China – time to build mills and solar panels
Solar energy has long been very popular in China. Having provided the whole world with solar panels, and at the same time reducing the cost of their production, Chinese manufacturers turned to wind energy. Having saturated the domestic market with wind turbines, and at the same time gaining experience in the production of this technologically challenging equipment, Chinese manufacturers will soon be ready to seriously compete with traditional players from Europe and the United States on their territory.
In March 2011, the Chinese government released the country's 12th development plan for the next five years from 2011 to 2015. According to the plan, the level of energy production from renewable sources is planned to be increased to 9.5% of all energy resources consumed by 2015. Solar energy is a priority, this is confirmed by the introduction of “green” tariffs for this type of energy in 2011. This initiative has the potential to turn China not only into the largest producer of solar panels, but also into their largest consumer. Equally aggressive goals have been set for wind energy. According to the plan, wind energy projects are expected to grow sharply from the current 13.9 GW to 100 GW in 2015.
Russia – timid steps towards a clean future
Against the backdrop of the rapid development of a new energy model in the world, Russia looks like a sleeping giant. In 2008, Roshydromet, together with the Russian Academy of Sciences, published an “Assessment report on climate change on the territory of the Russian Federation and its consequences,” one of the conclusions of which was the recognition of the need to expand work on the creation of technologies that help reduce global climate change, as well as work aimed at increasing energy saving, developing renewable energy sources and developing technologies for capturing and storing anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
The potential for reducing the energy intensity of the Russian economy is enormous; according to some estimates, the implementation of measures to increase energy efficiency in the energy sector, construction, real estate, industry and transport can save a significant portion of energy consumption. Russia's climate doctrine, published in December 2009, is only the first and very small step towards realizing this potential. In April 2011, the “Action Plan for the Implementation of the Climate Doctrine” was published, but it was not provided with either money or resources.
The state energy saving program can be considered as the main instrument of climate policy in Russia at the moment. Only it is supported by funds from the federal and municipal budgets and is designed to reduce the energy intensity of GDP by 40% by 2020.
Also in 2009, six initiatives were developed: “Count, save and pay”, “New World”, “Energy Efficient City”, “Energy Efficient Social Sphere” and “Small Integrated Energy”, within the framework of which pilot projects were carried out to test the methodology, technical solutions, organizational charts, standard contracts and financial models.
Unfortunately, the practical application of the experience gained through pilot projects did not happen for a number of reasons, including: lack of funding, coordination, organization, motivation, lack of experience in attracting independent financial institutions to projects and low environmental culture of the population.
To solve these problems, the Russian Energy Agency was created, the purpose of which is to comprehensively support and coordinate regional efforts for the practical implementation of the energy efficiency law. To overcome problems with financing energy efficiency projects, it is planned to create a federal energy service company that will financially support energy saving projects.
A number of public organizations, such as the Russian Social-Ecological Union, along with regional energy saving centers, are engaged in educating the population on energy saving issues. And this is the starting point for qualitative changes - the desire of each of us to live in a clean environment and know that our activities do not harm the environment.
Table 1. Main measures to support alternative energy
Table 2. How support mechanisms work
|
"Green" tariffs |
Volumes + certificates |
Tender schemes |
Financial incentives |
|
Renewable energy can be sold to the operator at a tariff guaranteed for a certain period of time Tariffs can be fixed or determined as a premium to the market price |
For every unit of green energy produced, the producer receives a green certificate, which he can freely sell and receive additional income. |
A goal is set for the introduction of new capacities or energy production. Through a tender, the participant with the lowest planned costs receives financial support (for example, in the form of a long-term “feed-in” tariff) |
Tax exemption or reduction Investment grants (reduction of capital costs) |
Table 3. Main support measures in some US states
|
“Volumes + certificates” system |
Obligations to install bidirectional meters |
Obligations for connection to networks |
|
|
California | |||
|
Connecticut | |||
|
New Mexico | |||
|
1-SH, 1-L, 1-K | |||
|
Washington | |||
|
Program at level: (number – number of programs) F – federal, W – state, L – local, K – company level |
|||
DONETSK NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE
"HIGH SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT"
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF "ENTERPRISE ECONOMICS"
COURSE WORK
Discipline: "Environmental Economics"
Variant of theoretical questions No. 3.37
Performed by student of the EPR-14 group Alexander Smirnov
Teacher: Zarichanskaya E.V.
Donetsk - 2014
Introduction
Section 1. Analysis of the current state of the environment
Section 2. Features of environmental and economic policy in developed countries
2.1 Sustainable development strategy
2.2 Stages of greening of developed countries
2.3 The role of the state in environmental and economic policy
2.4 Economic incentives for environmental activities
2.5 Market mechanisms of environmental and economic policy
Section 3. Practical task
conclusions
List of sources used
Applications
Introduction
The beginning of the 21st century was marked by the exacerbation of a number of global problems, among which the problem of environmental protection occupies a special place. Analyzing this problem, it should be noted that the development of scientific and technological progress leads to increasing environmental problems, including the annual increase in harmful emissions into the atmosphere, the manifestation of so-called global warming and the greenhouse effect, a colossal increase in household and industrial waste, and acid precipitation. due to the presence of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, multiple excesses of the maximum permissible concentration in the air of lead from the combustion of gasoline, pollution of water sources (rivers, lakes, seas) with industrial and domestic wastewater and polymer waste, accumulation of radioactive waste and toxic substances.
The purpose of the work is to consider the state of the environment and global environmental problems of our time, to study the main directions of environmental and economic policy in developed countries of the world, in particular the countries of the European Union, as well as the USA and Japan.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were consistently solved: educational and scientific literature on the issue under study was studied; the main global environmental problems and methods of greening management in countries with developed market economies are considered; An analysis of the instruments for regulating the environmental and economic policies of developed countries was carried out. To implement the assigned tasks, the following methods were used: collection, analysis and processing of statistical information.
ecological economic developed country
Section 1. Analysis of the current state of the environment
World experience shows that the first step in solving environmental problems is to obtain objective information about the state of the environment, i.e. about chemical, physical and other factors and characteristics of natural components of the natural environment, as well as the processes of their changes as a result of natural and anthropogenic causes. The only possible way to obtain such information is monitoring - a system of observation, study, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment. Monitoring consists of several successive stages: environmental assessment (measuring the degree of environmental distress on the “norm-pathology” scale); environmental diagnostics (identification and ranking of “disease-causing” factors of inanimate nature that cause environmental problems in a natural object); environmental regulation (determining the limits of the values of factors, going beyond which transforms the state of the ecosystem from favorable to unfavorable); environmental forecast (forecast of the degree of unfavorability of the ecosystem in the future); environmental quality management (closely related to the previous one, since one should themselves, by reducing the values of hazardous impacts, influence the ecosystem).
In terms of scale, monitoring systems can be local (individual enterprises), regional (national) and global (interstate). Since global environmental problems are of particular concern to the world community at the present stage, we will focus on a more detailed consideration of them. These problems are the result of human activity that is not consistent with the laws of natural development. The most important global environmental problems of our time are:
1. Global climate change.
Global climate change is associated with the “greenhouse effect” caused by emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, methane and other “greenhouse gases” into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a product of fuel combustion and deforestation and makes a significant contribution to global warming. “About 70 billion tons of CO 2 enter the atmosphere per year from natural processes; when burning gaseous fuels, an additional 15 billion tons of CO 2 are formed. Over 25 years, the CO 2 content has increased by 2-4 decimal percent per year.” "According to expert calculations, during 1990-2100 the average global temperature at the Earth's surface may increase by 1.5-5.8 o C." Among the reasons that cause the “greenhouse effect” are energy production (use of fossil fuels) - 50%, emissions of ozone-depleting substances - 20%, activity of tropical forests (emissions as a result of combustion and natural decay) - 15%, agricultural production (emission of methane from livestock farms, fertilization and waste disposal) - 15%. It is expected that climate change will have widespread consequences - melting of polar ice, and as a result, rising sea levels, flooding of densely populated coastal lowlands and island states, desertification, increased drought in arid and semi-arid areas, which will negatively affect agricultural production, possibly also shifting the boundaries of natural climatic zones from the equator to the poles, requiring the resettlement of people and the relocation of economic objects. According to available data, “the greatest impact on global climate change, based on carbon dioxide emissions per capita, is exerted by industrialized countries (USA - 19.61 tons/year, Canada - 17 tons/year, Belgium - 10.67 tons /year, Germany - 9.87 t/year)" . The concentration of substances harmful to human health in large cities exceeds medical standards tens of times. Acid rain damages forests, lakes and soil. “For example, in Europe, the annual damage from forest loss caused by air pollution is estimated at $35 billion.” .
Destruction of the Earth's ozone layer.
This phenomenon was first noted in 1975, and already in 1985 the international Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted, which protects living organisms from excess ultraviolet radiation coming from space and which can destroy plankton, which forms the basis of the food chain in the World Ocean. The increase in ultraviolet radiation negatively affects human health and has a significant impact on food production (the productivity of some plant species is reduced). The Montreal Protocol (1987) significantly limits the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, the most destructive of which is chlorofluorocarbon-12, or freon, which is widely used in air conditioners, refrigeration units, aerosol sprinklers, in the production of foam plastics and fire extinguishing agents. “As part of the Montreal Protocol, it was possible to ban the production and consumption of 100 types of chemicals that destroy the ozone layer. Many of these substances contribute to global warming. Overall, global consumption of such compounds has decreased by more than 95%.”
Acid rain.
The problem of acid rain made itself felt in Western Europe and North America in the late 50s. In the last decade, it has become global due to increased emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds. The main source of sulfur oxide emissions is thermal power plants and other stationary sources when burning fossil fuels (88%). The fuel and energy complex also produces 85% of nitrogen oxide emissions. Environmental pollution with nitrogen oxides occurs from livestock enterprises and the use of fertilizers. The economic losses associated with acid rain are varied. Thus, hundreds of lakes in Scandinavia and the British Isles, primarily due to acidification of water bodies, became fishless. Soil acidification is one of the main reasons for the drying out of temperate forests in the northern hemisphere: damage to European forests is estimated at 118 million cubic meters. m of wood per year. The annual damage to forestry in European countries is estimated at at least $30 billion - this is three times the annual expenditures of European countries on environmental protection.
4. Reduction of forest cover.
The destruction of forest resources negatively affects the state of atmospheric air, water systems, flora and fauna. Every year, an area of forest equal to the size of Austria is lost. At the current rate of deforestation, their area by the beginning of the 21st century. decreased by almost 40%. Of particular concern is the deforestation of tropical forests, about half of which were destroyed in the 20th century. According to experts, their annual losses currently amount to 16-17 million hectares. Forests, as we know, are “light”; their reduction leads to a reduction in the absorption of carbon dioxide, soil erosion, a reduction in the diversity of flora and fauna, degradation of water basins, and a decrease in the amount of fuel and industrial wood. “To the greatest extent, the processes of reduction in forest area are characteristic of South America (reduction by 221 million hectares), Africa, Asia and the countries of the Pacific basin (reduction of the area covered by forest by 2 times). At the same time, the regions of Europe are characterized by stabilization and even some increase in forest area." It should be noted that in underdeveloped countries there is predatory deforestation, but in countries with developed economies, on the contrary, any efforts are being made to increase green cover. For example, “Nigeria may lose all the forests on its territory in the next decade, and Poland plans to increase its forest land by exactly 30% by 2020.”
Desertification.
The main reasons for this are deforestation, overuse of pastures and climate warming. "Every year the area of deserts increases by 6 million hectares, and currently it amounts to 120 million hectares." .On June 17, 1994, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification was adopted. According to the UN Program, “a quarter of the landmass on Earth is under the threat of desertification, this directly affects over 250 million people. Over 1 billion people in more than a hundred countries may be left without sources of livelihood, as the productivity of arable land and pastures is declining.”
Water pollution.
According to experts, in some regions of the Earth, 80% of all human diseases are caused by poor quality water. "In 1990, about 1.3 billion people in developing countries lacked access to safe drinking water and 2 billion lived in unsanitary conditions." In addition, pollution of water systems with industrial waste and chemicals is increasing all over the world, among which the greatest danger is oil and petroleum products, pesticides, and synthetic substances.
Declining biodiversity.
Currently, biological diversity ranges from 10 to 30 million species of animals and plants. Humans have been influencing species diversity for thousands of years, but only in recent decades has this impact taken on alarming consequences. “It is expected that between 1990 and 2020, global species diversity could be lost by up to 15%, meaning up to 150 species could become extinct every day.”
There are other global environmental problems. Thus, “the global specific consumption of energy resources and raw materials leads to irreparable depletion of natural resources and irreversible changes in the environment. This conclusion is contained in the report of the Washington Institute for Environmental Monitoring (1998). Over the past 25 years, global wood consumption has doubled, paper consumption has increased 6 times , grain - 3 times, energy - 5 times, fish catch increased by 500%." During this period, industrial waste pollution of water, air and soil increased sharply. In this regard, environmental protection and rational use of natural resources become necessary conditions for the survival of mankind.
To increase the effectiveness of environmental activities at the national level, states are forced to take coordinated measures to protect their own environment. These main factors predetermine the need for international legal regulation of environmental protection and natural resource management and the development of cooperation in this area.
Section 2. Features of environmental and economic policy in developed countries
2.1 Sustainable development strategy
The formation of an effective economic system is a key issue in the economy of any country. The current stage of development of the world economy is that without a holistic systemic approach to transformation, it is impossible to achieve progress and sustainable growth. As practice shows, the process of development of economic relations in highly developed countries is based on the triad “quality - process - ecology”, where ecology acts as a boundary condition for the development of society, including its economic component. The rate of change in natural conditions has become quite commensurate with the rate of change in society itself, and the entire world civilization is currently aimed at a new development strategy, which is called the “sustainable development strategy.” A fundamental issue in the formation of the concept of sustainable development and greening of the economy is the question of the mechanisms for implementing such a concept. "There are usually three approaches:
) direct regulation associated with the influence of the state - regulatory, administrative and control measures, direct regulation, etc.;
) economic incentives associated with the development of market mechanisms;
) mixed mechanisms combining the first two approaches."
Environmental policy around the world has undergone significant changes over the past decades. So, if in the 50s of the twentieth century. its essence was the dispersion of harmful emissions over a wider area, then from the late 60s of the twentieth century. the creation of various types of treatment facilities began, and in the 80s of the last century, the economic practices of developed countries came to the conclusion that capturing harmful substances in one environment and then placing them in another is far from the best solution to the problem. Therefore, the main task of environmental policy can be considered the need to minimize the release of harmful substances during the production process, ensure safe storage of hazardous waste and a high degree of recycling.
2.2 Stages of greening of developed countries
The reason for the start of the greening process on a global scale was the energy crisis in 1973-1974. During this period, some countries of the European Union (EU) switched to saving natural resources through environmentally friendly production technologies and began to widely use economic methods to stimulate the environment and rational energy use. “Analysis of the world experience of developed countries in the direction of greening allows us to identify several main stages presented in Table 2.1.”
Table 2.1 Stages of greening in the context of global development
Time frame Characteristics of the stage Note Strategy name The main idea: the larger the area over which dispersion occurs, the less dangerous it is. Prerequisites for greening Diffusion and dilution strategy 1970s Administrative-command methods of environmental management were mainly used due to the strong influence of Keynesian principles Consists of contamination control and end-of-pipe equipment Pollution Control Strategy 1980s There is increasing interest in market methods of regulating environmental management: environmental taxes, collateral system, trading in pollution rights Leaders: Denmark, Sweden, Netherlands Strategy for recycling waste and other pollutants Pollution prevention strategy from the 1990s to the present. The concept of sustainable development is being intensively developed, aimed at harmonizing the relationship between man and society Work in this direction is still relevant today. Environmental management systems, avoiding the “end of the pipe” operating principle The most important trend noted by a number of experts in developed countries is the reduction of direct regulation and government intervention in the field of environmental management. The role of the state is, first of all, to provide a legislative basis for the implementation of state programs for environmental protection and regulation of private business activities in this area, organizing a system of control over the implementation of relevant provisions of the law. The competence, tasks and functions of government environmental authorities in a number of developed countries were determined by the basic laws on environmental protection. Such "laws were adopted: in Japan - in 1967, in Sweden and the USA - in 1969, in Denmark - in 1973, in Germany - in 1974." . In addition to the Basic Law, there are also numerous legislative acts regulating certain environmental and environmental-economic aspects: regional, by environmental components, and economic sectors. Existing methods of greening management can be divided into several groups - administrative; economic; market. After the 1972 UN Conference on Environmental Protection in Stockholm, many countries of the world community began to implement coordinated environmental policies, including in the field of environmental management and environmental protection. During this period, special state environmental protection bodies were created in many countries. “For example, in Great Britain the Ministry of Environmental Protection was created in 1970, in 1971 similar ministries were created in Denmark, Holland, Australia, France, Canada, 1972 - in Austria, Norway, in 1973 - in Italy." In early December 1997, at the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention in the Japanese city of Kyoto, a protocol was adopted, according to which the industry of developed countries must reduce total greenhouse gas emissions from 2008 to 2012 by about 5 percent compared to the level of emissions in 1990 by differentiating them changes in different countries. "For example, by 8% in most European countries, by 7% in the USA, by 6% in Canada, Japan, and Poland." In turn, there are quite a large number of international cooperation programs on solving environmental problems on the European continent. Thus, in the European Union, the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) is studying environmental problems, whose experts “have developed indicators of the environmental aspects of sustainable development, presented in Table 2.2. For certain groups of countries, their own sustainable development strategy guidelines can be formulated, which will take into account the existing resource potential and state of infrastructure for the development of productive forces presented in Appendix A." Table 2.2 Indicators of environmental aspects of sustainable development
Indicators of environmental aspects of sustainable development (developed by the UN) Protecting the quality of freshwater resources and water supplies Protecting the oceans, all types of seas and coastal areas Integrated approach to planning and maintenance of land resources Combating desertification and droughts Sustainable development of mountain areas Support for agricultural and rural development Preventing deforestation Conservation of biological diversity Environmentally sound management of biotechnology Atmosphere protection Environmentally friendly solid waste management Environmentally friendly handling of toxic chemicals Environmentally friendly handling of hazardous waste Safety and environmentally friendly handling “In the early 70s of the last century, the main working body was created within the commission - “Senior Advisors” to the governments of the EEC countries on environmental issues. The main problems that were developed in the EEC in accordance with its program were the following: · exchange of information regarding environmental policies and strategies of EEC member countries; · problems of air pollution; · development of information on environmental issues needed for economic research and policy development; · natural resource management from the point of view of environmental criteria; · environmental aspects of economic development planning; · development of a general approach to control the release of toxic chemicals and toxic waste into the environment; · research into methods for creating “national standards for protecting water from major pollutants; · the role of transport in the urban environment; · economic assessment of damage caused to the environment; · environmental problems that cover large areas (common bodies of water and areas of the atmosphere), tourism development." In addition to cooperation within the UNECE, in European countries there are special regional cooperation programs on nature conservation, which are implemented by global intergovernmental organizations (for example, OECD, REC, UNESCO, IAEA): · Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - created in 1961, 24 states participate; · regional environmental center for Central and Eastern Europe - Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC) - created in 1990, participants - states of Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia), USA, Commission of the European Communities; · the United Nations Human Environment Program (UNEP) was established at the Stockholm Conference in June 1972. The headquarters is in Nairobi (Kenya), regional offices are in Geneva, New York, Beirut, Bangkok, Mexico City; · International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) - created in 1957. The main activities of these organizations are as follows: OECD - "analysis of economic and environmental problems (air pollution, disposal of hazardous waste, etc.) and their solutions; development of recommendations for improving environmental protection methods; consultations; financial and technical assistance; exchange of information on environmental issues, assistance in solving problems of economic and social development" ;- "promoting cooperation between various environmental parties, groups and movements, providing them with financial assistance in solving environmental problems; implementing projects and programs to prevent degradation and restore natural resources; promoting the development of a market economy; environmental education" ; UNEP - "the problem of soil and water protection, combating the spread of deserts; the problem of environmental education, professional training and information transfer; trade, economic and technological aspects of the environmental problem; protection of the World Ocean from pollution; protection of flora and fauna, conservation and maintenance of genetic resources of the globe; the problem of energy and energy resources; assessment of the natural environment and its management" ; IAEA - "implementation of programs aimed at ensuring nuclear safety and protecting the natural environment from radioactive contamination (develops rules for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, conducts an examination of the activities of nuclear power plants, assesses their impact on the environment, establishes radiation safety standards and verifies their implementation)" . In recent years, there has been a tendency to increase the number of government bodies, including line ministries, responsible for the state of the environment in their “own area,” and to expand their functions in this area. On the other hand, in almost all developed countries central authorities have emerged to manage environmental policy on a national scale. In Japan - this is the Environmental Protection Agency, in France - the corresponding ministry, in Germany - the Federal Office for the Environment, in the USA - the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, which has branches in a number of states. The structure of federal bodies responsible for environmental management is presented in Appendix B. The functions of the above departments include: development of environmental protection measures, analysis of changes in the environmental situation, approval of environmental assessment acts. Thus, it can be noted that government intervention in environmental management in developed countries is quite significant. Hierarchical management systems have been created, which highlight the goals of environmental policy, its objects (air basin, water systems, land resources, forests, etc.), as well as levels of implementation (national, local). A toolkit has been developed, including environmental monitoring, process management, financing and incentives for environmental activities. Regulation of environmental activities in developed countries is supported by economic incentives (subsidies for the purchase of environmental equipment, preferential targeted lending, tax breaks). The basis for environmental policy and its financing in most developed countries was the principle of a normative quality state of the environment, which is achieved by establishing standards for various types of pollution. The transition to these standards is ensured by an appropriate tax policy, which is both punitive and lenient, stimulating in nature, the use of subsidies, preferential lending, the introduction of pollution trading systems or payments for their standard and above-standard levels, and fines. Non-economic levers include direct bans on production, administrative decisions to close enterprises, as well as criminal prosecution. "As economic incentive measures that create internal incentives, it is possible to: establishment of tax benefits for taxes credited to the local or regional budget and provided by the relevant authorities; the development of preferential taxation of environmental types of products or work must be carried out simultaneously with compensation for lost budget revenues through the introduction of indirect taxes on environmentally hazardous products or work." In general, in countries with developed economies, a system of economic incentives and environmental impacts has developed, which is a set of tax and credit measures. Among them, the most widespread are those associated with the provision of direct or indirect assistance to private capital from the state. This policy, which is carried out in countries with classical market relations, consists of providing economic assistance and certain benefits to entrepreneurs carrying out activities aimed at improving the state of the natural environment. There are so-called direct and hidden subsidies for these activities. The main forms of providing direct economic assistance from the state to the private business sector in order to stimulate environmental investments in the economies of Western Europe and North America are, firstly, direct targeted subsidies (centralized or local), and secondly, direct loans to solve various environmental problems. “It is worth noting that among all foreign economic forms of environmental management (and there are more than one hundred and fifty of them in total), it is the form of subsidies that accounts for approximately 30%.” In the EU countries, progressive changes have already taken place in the formation of national environmental policies. In particular, environmentally friendly technologies and management methods are being introduced at an accelerated pace, environmental and economic regulators are being used to stimulate the environmental activities of commodity producers and consumers, appropriate legislative frameworks for rationalizing environmental management are being developed, taking into account environmental requirements and standards, and the information and statistical base of environmental management and regulation is being strengthened. . A comparative analysis of the use of economic instruments for regulating environmental management in developed countries is presented in Table. 2.3. Environmental criteria for the effectiveness of economic incentive measures can be considered: the degree of compliance of the actual levels of resource consumption, resource saving, and energy intensity with the established specific standards for the range of products and resources; the degree of compliance with accepted regulatory burdens on the environment; the share of industries that take into account the environmental factor in their activities; efficiency of capital investments for environmental purposes. Table 2.3 Use of economic instruments for environmental management Along with general trends in environmental policy and economic management of environmental management in developed countries, there are also national characteristics inherent in each country. For example, in 1992, the United States adopted a law on environmental crimes, according to which the most persistent violators are punished with a fine of up to 25 thousand dollars for each day of violation, and in conditions of criminal liability - up to two years in prison. “For example, the Louisiana-Pacific wood processing corporation with an annual turnover of 1.7 billion dollars had to pay a fine of 11 million dollars. In addition to paying the fine, the corporation undertook to install new cleaning equipment at its production site for a total of the amount of 70 million dollars." In an advanced economy like Japan, environmental law is primarily focused on the development of health standards. Limitations on emissions and discharges of pollutants have been established for certain sectors of the economy. The Environmental Protection Agency has developed legislative acts on environmental assessment of projects and programs. Laws have also been adopted: on land drainage, on the location of industrial enterprises, on the protection of the inland sea, as well as government recommendations on the implementation of environmental assessment of production. Under public pressure, the most stringent sanitary and hygienic standards for water quality have been developed. Another feature of this country’s environmental policy is the widespread use of a compensation system for damage caused by environmental pollution. Compensation is paid to the victim by the polluting firms. Thus, economic mechanisms ensure a balance of interests of the state and economic entities (resource users). While maintaining the total amount of taxes, it is advisable to sharply change the proportions in favor of increasing the share of taxes related to the use of natural resources, primarily fees for the right to use natural resources, and “green” taxes. This share should grow and constitute a significant part of state budget revenues. This will make it possible to more adequately take into account the impact on the environment, degradation of natural resources and create an incentive to reduce the environmental intensity of the economy. “As studies in the United States have shown, the introduction of even a limited number of “green” taxes would make it possible to annually collect an additional $100 billion into the federal budget. Environmental excise taxes have become widespread in European countries. In France, Germany, Italy there is a tax on lubricating oils, Norway and Sweden - on mineral fertilizers and pesticides, which finance the program of sustainable, environmentally balanced agriculture; a tax on the use of fuel and oil products has been introduced in Austria and the UK." Due to the fact that the goal of sustainable development policy in developed countries is to search for environmental protection instruments that would allow achieving a balance between the requirements of environmental and economic efficiency, environmental or “green” taxes can play a stimulating role for the development of environmentally-balanced industries and types of activities, and “overwhelming” for nature-intensive activities. Here the state gives only the initial impetus, influencing prices with the help of taxes, and market mechanisms do the rest - influencing the behavior of producers and consumers, the demand and supply of products depending on the degree of their environmental friendliness. If we turn to world experience, we can see that the initially formed mechanism of administrative management of natural resources is gradually undergoing changes and evolving towards the development of market methods. For example, “in the USA, Germany and other countries with market economies, the task arose of transforming the administrative management systems existing in these countries in the field of environmental protection. A distinctive feature of such transformations was the widespread use of economic regulators to encourage environmental entrepreneurship while maintaining state control and regulation in this area." The main focus of the European Union's environmental policy is to encourage producers and consumers to rationally use natural resources and use environmentally friendly technologies, i.e. transition to eco-friendly technologies. Since the 1990s, EU environmental policy has seen a shift away from direct administration towards more flexible mechanisms, including those incorporating market elements (for example, trading in greenhouse gas emissions quotas, based on the principle of “shared responsibility” between participants - the government, business, public, consumers). "We can give the following classification of modern existing market instruments: · trade permits introduced to reduce emissions (for example, CO 2 emissions quotas) or to conserve natural resources (for example, fishing quotas); · environmental taxes introduced to change prices and thus the policies of consumers and producers; · environmental contributions introduced to fully or partially cover the costs of environmental services, measures to reduce water pollution, and waste disposal; · environmental subsidies and incentives created to stimulate the development of new technologies, create new markets for environmental goods and services, and support the achievement of high levels of environmental protection by companies; · liability and compensation schemes, the purpose of which is to provide adequate compensation for the consequences of activities hazardous to the environment, as well as the costs of preventing and restoring damage." As the experience of environmental work in the United States and other countries shows, the sale of pollution rights plays a special role in this process. The US, for example, moved to trading excess emissions reductions starting in 1984. The essence of this approach is that a company that has managed to reduce the total emission of a pollutant at its enterprise below the level established for it has the right to sell the excess emissions reduction, for example, to a neighboring company in a given region or to use it in the interests of reconstructing or expanding its own production. This approach makes it possible to reduce the total emission of pollutants at lower costs. The policy of trading surplus emissions reductions is based on the compensation procedure and the so-called “bubble principle” or “bubble principle”. In this case, the source of pollution is not a single pipe, but an entire enterprise or even enterprises in a separate region. It should be noted that these types of methods are not purely market in the sense that the rules for their use are established by the state, and the level of environmental standards remains the basis. Their market element is that companies can sell "excess" pollution to each other, i.e. It may be more profitable for one company to buy the pollution “saved” by another company in exchange for installing additional treatment equipment. By the mid-1980s, for example, the total savings from all bubbles in the United States amounted to more than $1 billion. The policy of trading rights to pollution also involves the use of a method according to which a firm that avoids installing its own treatment equipment must pay part of the cost of such equipment installed at the enterprises of other firms. By the beginning of the 90s, more than 10 thousand similar transactions were concluded in the United States. A number of EU countries have introduced a carbon tax. Since January 1990, in Finland, according to the law, this tax has been levied on fossil fuels (with the exception of automobile fuels). In May 1990, Sweden established the highest carbon tax rate among all EU countries, which significantly increased the revenues used for environmental purposes. A tax is also applied for sulfur emissions due to the combustion of coal, peat, and oil. The “hydrocarbon tax” was introduced in Norway in 1991. Currently, it applies to the use of mineral fuels for both domestic and industrial purposes; coal; gasoline; diesel fuel; oil and gas produced on offshore platforms. The experience of foreign countries shows that environmental policies based on fundamental legal legislation effectively use environmental taxation. Environmental taxes in various forms and degrees of implementation exist in all EU countries. Currently, some EU countries are transitioning to a restructured, increased tax on environmental pollution. In countries such as Great Britain, Italy, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Norway, there is a practice of replacing part of the taxes on labor and capital with environmental taxes (for example, for environmental pollution). Since the mid-90s, a number of environmental taxes have been introduced in the European Union at the level of member countries, including energy taxes (excise duties on motor fuel and taxes on carbon dioxide emissions), and transport taxes. At the same time, taxes on environmental pollution and natural resource management play a minor role in the income received from them. These environmental taxes accounted for between 5 and 13% of total tax revenues in the 15 EU member states in 2008. The “greening” of the tax systems of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, which includes a transition from income taxation towards indirect taxation, an increase in the number of environmental taxes, and the abolition of subsidies to “ecologically polluted areas”, has affected the state of the environment in these countries. A number of countries (Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands) have introduced taxation of all hazardous industries, sometimes the amount of environmental costs of polluting enterprises reaches 50%. Denmark applies a tax on energy consumption (except natural gas and petrol) and taxes on emissions or discharges. The “polluter pays” principle forms the basis of environmental payments in the Netherlands. The following taxes are common in this country: on fuel (coal mining), on energy, on waste, on domestic and ground water, excise taxes on petroleum products, and transport tax. In the USA, a special environmental tax applies. Over the past decade, the practice of financing environmental programs through the introduction of special taxes has developed quite widely. Superfund, the most famous federal program in the United States, financed primarily by taxes, has existed for more than 20 years. Its goal is to clean up old and abandoned waste disposal sites and other areas where there is significant contamination. Some differentiated taxes apply to states: for hazardous chemicals (Wisconsin - $2000 for each active component of a pesticide; Iowa - for nitrogen fertilizers $0.75/t); deduction of a fixed percentage for the implementation of environmental programs (Delaware - 2.9% of taxes go to combat chemical waste; Missouri - 2.9% from the sale of real estate; some states deduct 1-2% from the sale of fuel and/or cars; The states of Washington, Idaho, and Minnesota deduct taxes from the sale of tobacco products). The states of New Jersey, Washington, and Louisiana have recently used a pollution fee system based on determining the maximum level of enterprise costs for environmental protection measures. A distinctive feature of the United States in the field of collecting environmental fees is the establishment of fees for granting the right to pollute the atmosphere - over 30 states charge for the discharge of wastewater, 35 states for the use of drinking water, about 20 states for the disposal of hazardous and solid waste, etc. . All these payments provide very significant income, which is used for environmental activities. Providing tax benefits is a widely used tool in practice. It implies the provision of benefits and accelerated depreciation to “environmentally friendly” enterprises. For example, in some EU countries a fixed percentage of capital investments for environmental protection is allocated to this item of expenditure in the budget: Norway - 1.6%, Sweden - 5%, Germany - 9%. In countries outside the European Union, the fixed percentage of capital investments for environmental protection is: Japan - 2.6%, USA - 4.5%. One of the strategic directions for implementing environmental transformations is the development of entrepreneurship. An important link in ensuring environmental safety and environmental health is the creation of environmental entrepreneurship, which refers to the production and sale of goods, works and services aimed at preventing harm to the environment and public health. “In Canada, for example, there are more than 3,500 companies producing equipment for environmental protection and related services. In Japan, a special expert council on environmental business has been operating since 1988.” With the introduction of strict restrictions in the field of environmental protection in Japan, entrepreneurs began to actively promote the introduction of new technologies in this area. Such activities are currently called “eco-business”. The most profitable environmental business in Japan is the production of pollution control equipment, which is considered one of the most advanced in the world. This is especially true for equipment for the removal and disposal of household waste. It should be noted that the “eco-business” market has not yet been defined; therefore, its development requires government regulation and financial assistance, including subsidies, loans, and tax reductions. In the EU countries, there are more than 10 thousand companies associated with environmental entrepreneurship, the total sales of which exceed 40 billion euros per year. In the USA, environmental regulation, affecting almost all sectors of the economy, gave impetus to the intensive development of a new and very profitable area for investing capital There has been an increase in the number of firms specializing in environmental consulting services, including companies involved in waste management.Environmentally oriented products in the United States maintain a strong position in the production of industrial products (cleaning equipment, instrumentation equipment, clean technologies and new materials, etc.) and consumer goods (from natural food to harmless paints). Determine the annual economic damage from river pollution. Dnieper industrial enterprise, if the annual volume of wastewater is 1238300 m3 with a concentration of petroleum products of 55 mg/l, solids of 90 mg/l. During the warm period of the year (from April to September), the volume of wastewater is reduced to 1/3 of the annual volume, and the concentration of petroleum products is reduced to 29 mg/l. To calculate the economic damage from river pollution. Dnepr we use the formula Υ in = γ δ k Μ, where Υ in is the economic estimate of the annual loss; γ is a monetary unit equal to 443 UAH. / conv. T.; δ k is a constant that has an equal value (0.34); M is the reduced mass of the annual discharge of impurities from a given source into the river. Dnieper (UAH/year). The reduced mass is calculated using the formula Μ = ∑ A i · m i i=1 TV thing =1238300*90*10 -6 =111.447 (t/year) oil. cont. etc. = 183*412766.6*29*10 -6 =2190.552 (t/year) oil. cont. X. p. = 182*825533.4*55*10 -6 =8263.589 (t/year) oil. cont. =2190.552+8263.589=10454.141 (t/year) M= 111.447*0.05+10454.141*20=209088.392 (UAH/year) γ = 443 UAH. / conv. T.; δk = 0.34; in =443*0.34*209088.392=31492893.603 UAH. /year Answer: annual economic damage from river pollution. Dnepr industrial enterprise is 31492893.603 UAH. /year. Determine the annual economic damage from air pollution from a municipal solid waste (MSW) dump in a suburban area, if it is known that during the combustion of solid waste the following is released: wood dust - 0.5 t per year, silicon dioxide - 0.9 t, phenols - 0.4 t for a year. The emission temperature is 100°C, the particle sedimentation speed is 21 cm/s. (Reference data: air velocity module values 3 m/s, average annual air temperature in the territory 21°C). To calculate the annual economic damage from air pollution from a solid waste dump in a suburban area, we use the formula Υ amm = γ δ ƒ Μ, where Υ amm - amount of damage, UAH. /year, γ is the monetary value of a unit of emissions, amounting to 33 UAH. / conv. T.; δ - indicator of the relative danger of air pollution; ƒ - correction taking into account the nature of the dispersion of impurities in the atmosphere; Μ - reduced mass of annual release from the source, arb. t./year M=0.5*19.6+0.9*83.2+0.4*310=208.68 γ = 33 UAH. / conv. T.; δ is a table value, which is 8, ƒ - 10, since the settling speed of particles is 21 cm/s. amm =3.3*8*10*208.68=55091.52 UAH. /year Answer: the annual economic damage from air pollution from a solid waste dump in a suburban area is UAH 55,091.52. /year. Determine the amount of payments per month for pollution of the residential area of a regional center with a population of 120,000 people. by rail, if the volume of diesel fuel consumed is 500 tons per month. To calculate the amount of payment per month for pollution of the residential area of the regional center by rail, we use the formula Pvp = ∑ Мі x Нпі, where Нпі - tax rates (indexed rates) in the current year per ton of the i-th pollutant, in hryvnias and kopecks. Мі = 500 t./month. Let's assume that the sulfur content in diesel fuel is more than 0.2 wt. %, then Нпі = 79.90 UAH. /T. Let's index the tax rate, then Npi=79.90*1.12=89.48*1.13=101.11*1.14=115.26 UAH. /T. Pvp = 500 * 115.26 = 57630 UAH. Answer: the amount of payments per month for pollution of the residential area of the district center is 57,630 UAH. A solid waste dump with special protective equipment is located at a distance of 2.0 km from the city. Determine the amount of monthly payments for the disposal of solid household waste, if the monthly volume of hazard class II waste within the limit is 50 tons. To determine the amount of the monthly payment for the disposal of solid waste, we use the formula Prv = ∑ (Npi x Mli x Kt x Ko), where Нпі - tax rates (indexed rates) in the current year per ton of the i-th pollutant, in hryvnias and kopecks; Млі - volume of waste of the i type in tons (t); Kt is a correction factor that takes into account the location of the waste disposal site; Ko is a correction factor equal to 3 and is applied in the case of waste disposal in landfills that do not completely eliminate pollution of atmospheric air or water bodies. Npi = 29.96 UAH. /T. Let's index the tax rate, then Нпі = 29.96 * 1.12 =33.55*1.13=37.91*1.14=43.21 UAH. /T.; Mli =50 t.; Kt = 3, so the waste dump is located 3 km away. zone from the city; Ko = 3, since the waste hazard level is highly unsafe. Prv= 43.21 *50*3*3=19444.5 UAH. /month Answer: the amount of monthly payments for disposal of solid waste is 19,444.5 UAH. /month At all stages of the evolution of society, man was closely connected with the environment. However, only with the transition to industrial civilization, human impact on nature increased somewhat, which led to the destruction and degradation of natural systems and put humanity at risk of an environmental crisis. The modern environmental threat is caused by a combination of local and global environmental problems, the solution of which must be carried out jointly. In general, environmental policy remains the most important area of activity for developed countries. An extensive system of environmental legislation has been formed in this area, the norms of which are successfully implemented in practice. The system of environmental management regulation in highly developed countries is the most diversified and flexible, it operates with a significant range of economic levers and instruments, primarily an incentive plan, that can overcome environmental problems and increase the efficiency of involving the natural factor in the restoration process. The above study showed that the characteristic features of environmental and economic policy in developed countries are: strict control over compliance with environmental and economic standards; Refusal of direct government intervention in the process of environmental management; government agencies economically stimulate and support the environmental activities of the private sector through subsidies, tax breaks, loans, an accelerated depreciation regime for environmental equipment, and the purchase and sale of pollution rights; the use of regulators that force polluters to limit their environmentally destructive activities, as well as regulators that force resource users to improve the state of the environment; providing investment to the private sector for the acquisition and development of technically advanced, environmentally friendly equipment; price incentives for the production of environmentally friendly products and providing them with preferential conditions in the market. 1. Environmental Economics: Lecture notes for full-time and part-time students of the specialty: 7.03050401, 8.03050401 "Enterprise Economics" (EPR), Specialization: Enterprise Economics of the Fuel and Energy Complex (EPEC) / Compiled by: A.V. Lyakhov. - Donetsk: DonNTU, 2012. - 163 p. 2. Lukyanchikov N.N., Potravny I.M. Economics and organization of environmental management: Textbook for university students studying in the direction of "Economics" - 4th ed., revised. and additional - Golden fund of Russian textbooks - 687 pp. Vasilyeva E.E. Economics of Environmental Management / Belarusian State University, Faculty of Economics. Educational and methodological complex - Minsk, 2002. - 119 p. Ayushieva L.K. Improving the taxation system in order to green the economy // Bulletin of the Buryat State University UDC 336.22+338: 574, 2012, No. 2, pp. 53-55. Guryeva M.A. Greening the economy: international experience // Army and Society, 2012, No. 2, pp. 1-12. Lukyanchikov N.N., Potravny I.M. Economics and organization of environmental management: Textbook for universities. - 2nd ed. reworked and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2002. - 454 p. Safranov T.A. Ecological foundations of environmental management: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. - Lvov: "New World - 2000", 2003. - 248 p. Danylyshyn B.M., Khvesik M.A., Golyan V.A. Economics of environmental management: Textbook. - K.: Condor, 2010. - 465 p. Dubas R.G. Environmental economics. Tutorial. - (2nd ed. stereotype.). - K.: KNT, 2009. - 448 p. Poddubny I.A., Slyusarenko V.K. International environmental and economic activity: Textbook. - Kh.: Publishing House "INZHEK", 2005. - 200 p. Russian language Bobylev S.N., Khodzhaev A.Sh. Environmental economics. Textbook. - Moscow, 2003. - 567 p. Zerschikova M.A. Formation of a mechanism for environmental and innovative activities in the region // Engineering Bulletin of the Don issue 1/vol. 15/2011. - p.26-32.
2.3 The role of the state in environmental and economic policy
2.4 Economic incentives for environmental activities
2.5 Market mechanisms of environmental and economic policy
Section 3. Practical task
Problem 1
Problem 2
conclusions
List of sources used
2. Environmental policy
In the world community there are problems affecting every country, every person. These problems are called global. To solve them, the efforts of any one country or group of countries, even with great capabilities, are not enough. To do this, it is necessary to attract a variety of resources from all over the world and intelligently combine efforts to solve them. There are a lot of such problems, but the five most important of them are environmental, demographic, natural resources, disarmament and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, and the fight against terrorism.
Today, the environmental problem has come to the fore. Environmental pollution, resource extraction, population growth and other similar problems lead to significant changes in human living conditions and the state of the atmosphere. Thus, the environmental problem has become global and acquired a number of economic aspects. At the same time, it is characterized by a tendency of exacerbation.
For the first time, people started talking about the environmental problem at the global level in the 1970s. within the framework of the Club of Rome. He considered issues related to environmental and ecological violations and the impact of these factors on humans. Then it was supposed to focus on reducing the impact of economic activity and reducing the rate of population growth. These measures were to be carried out through regulation of economic growth.
But now it has become clear that such measures are not enough and they themselves do not give the desired effect to the extent necessary. The increasing development of countries also has its downside: new and increasingly dangerous trends and problems appear (nuclear waste, climate change on the planet). They cover not only economically developed and high-tech countries, but practically the entire territory of the Earth.
These problems not only worsen an already unfavorable situation, but also accelerate the rate of environmental pollution: many modern indicators are no longer comparable with those in previous periods. In the 20th century a quarter of all cultivated land and more than two-thirds of forests were destroyed. Over the past 30 years, water pollution has increased more than 10 times, and production has increased 2.5 times. Many experts also talk about the problem of space pollution, since in recent years many objects that we no longer need have accumulated in it, many of which cannot be returned to Earth - this can cause serious and irreparable consequences.
Despite this clear and rapid deterioration of environmental indicators, environmental expenditures have increased by only 3.5 times, and there is a tendency for this gap to widen even further.
Cooperation in the environmental sphere requires the interaction of countries, since many of them (developing and countries with economies in transition) do not have sufficient funds to overcome environmental threats. Naturally, most of the harmful emissions come from developed countries, but, according to experts, the “contribution” in this area from developing countries by the middle of the 21st century will be will increase from 28% (today) to 40%.
In solving this problem it is necessary to rely on the international level. Back in 1983, the World Commission on Environment and Development was created within the United Nations.
In 1992, a conference was held in Rio de Janeiro on development and environment. It adopted “Agenda 21,” which contained a number of provisions. The main ones are: people’s rights to health, environmental protection, respect for the interests of future generations, changes in technologies and methods of production and consumption.
Modern environmental problems are also political in nature. This applies primarily to the sphere of creating and testing nuclear weapons. Cooperation in this area requires special attention, although often restrictions on the use of dangerous substances, nuclear weapons, etc. run counter to the national interests of a particular country.
Market methods are not applicable to solving environmental problems, which also applies to other global problems. This requires administrative and other indirect measures. The first include prohibitions, restrictions, the establishment of certain standards, obligations to conduct examinations, etc. The indirect ones include: fines, payments, special taxes and fees, the creation of environmental funds, etc.
The present period, characterized by worsening environmental problems and the occurrence of disasters, has forced many countries to join forces. There are a number of measures that need to be taken to ensure environmental safety: awareness of the severity of the environmental problem, development and implementation of consistent measures in this direction, constant monitoring of the state of the environment, prosecution for violation of environmental legislation, ensuring control over the construction of environmentally hazardous facilities, environmental education of the population, etc.
The UN conference in Kyoto in 1997, in which more than 120 countries took part, was devoted to all these issues. Measures to attract funds from countries around the world were discussed, and emission limits were set for each country (and countries can sell their quotas to each other).
In 2000, a forum took place in The Hague. At it, countries tried to eliminate the shortcomings that still exist within the framework of quotas and eliminate shortcomings in the program to reduce air emissions.
Be that as it may, countries around the world understand the significance of the environmental problem and are trying to coordinate their actions in the environmental sphere.
Government policies pursued with specific goals can significantly influence the formation of competitive advantages of different countries. In recent decades, it has increasingly been implemented through an active environmental policy as part of the economic strategy of the most developed countries. The state is forced to intervene in solving environmental problems because market mechanisms by themselves cannot yet take environmental costs into account in the price of goods. This is an area in which firms do not always make immediate profits, but the benefits to the nation as a whole are significantly greater than those received by individual companies.
M. Porter believes that environmental policy does not negatively affect the competitiveness of states, since countries with the most stringent environmental legislation are the best economically developed. On the contrary, environmental policy helps to increase the competitiveness of states, industries and individual firms. This is proven by both scientific research and the practical activities of companies. At the state level, an environmentally oriented economy helps to increase the competitiveness of the nation as a whole, as the living environment improves, the quality of life increases and the life expectancy of the working population increases. Sometimes an individual company does not immediately benefit from environmental investments, but the benefits are more compelling for the entire country.
Developed countries use environmental legislation and economic levers of environmental policy to increase the competitive advantages of firms and, ultimately, the state as a whole. To this end, they stimulate early demand for environmentally friendly products, increase consumer awareness, pursue balanced foreign investment policies, encourage the adoption of environmentally friendly technologies and develop new environmental industries. At the same time, it is especially important to be the first to adopt strict standards and norms compared to other countries, to constantly tighten them and monitor their implementation. This gives a technological advantage in the competition.
In some sectors of the economy, the subjects of competition are firms, not states. Firms view environmentally oriented production as an area of additional opportunities, a new means of increasing competitiveness. This can be achieved due to the following factors:
1) saving raw materials and energy leads to a direct reduction in production costs due to the reduction of production costs, minimizing losses and recycling waste;
2) most environmental problems represent additional opportunities for firms, the main premise of which is the constant improvement of technology; The greatest competitive advantages are obtained by firms that invest in environmentally friendly technologies earlier than others.
Recently, companies themselves have been demanding that the state tighten legislation in order to gain advantages over competitors. This trend extends not only to individual firms, but also to countries.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were consistently solved: educational and scientific literature on the issue under study was studied; the main global environmental problems and methods of greening management in countries with developed market economies are considered; An analysis of the instruments for regulating the environmental and economic policies of developed countries was carried out. To implement the assigned tasks, the following methods were used: collection, analysis and processing of statistical information.
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PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 3
DONETS KYY NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE
"HIGH SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT"
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
DEPARTMENT OF ENTERPRISE ECONOMICS
COURSE WORK
Discipline: “Environmental Economics”
Variant of theoretical questions No. 3.37
Performed by student of the EPR-14 group Alexander Smirnov
Teacher: Zarichanskaya E.V.
Donetsk - 2014
Introduction 3
Section 1. Analysis of the current state of the environment 4-8
Section 2. Features of environmental and economic policy in developed countries
countries 9
2.1. Sustainable Development Strategy 9
2.2. Stages of greening developed countries 10
2.3. The role of the state in environmental and economic policy 11-15
2.4. Economic incentives for environmental activities 15-20
2.5. Market mechanisms of environmental and economic policy 20-25
Section 3. Practical task 26-29
Conclusions 30-31
List of sources used 32-33
Appendix A 34
Appendix B 35
INTRODUCTION
The beginning of the 21st century was marked by the exacerbation of a number of global problems, among which the problem of environmental protection occupies a special place. Analyzing this problem, it should be noted that the development of scientific and technological progress leads to increasing environmental problems, including the annual increase in harmful emissions into the atmosphere, the manifestation of so-called global warming and the greenhouse effect, a colossal increase in household and industrial waste, and acid precipitation. due to the presence of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, multiple excesses of the maximum permissible concentration in the air of lead from the combustion of gasoline, pollution of water sources (rivers, lakes, seas) with industrial and domestic wastewater and polymer waste, accumulation of radioactive waste and toxic substances.
The purpose of the work is to consider the state of the environment and global environmental problems of our time, to study the main directions of environmental and economic policy in developed countries of the world, in particular the countries of the European Union, as well as the USA and Japan.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were consistently solved: educational and scientific literature on the issue under study was studied; the main global environmental problems and methods of greening management in countries with developed market economies are considered; An analysis of the instruments for regulating the environmental and economic policies of developed countries was carried out. To implement the assigned tasks, the following methods were used: collection, analysis and processing of statistical information.
SECTION 1
ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
World experience shows that the first step in solving environmental problems is to obtain objective information about the state of the environment, i.e. about chemical, physical and other factors and characteristics of natural components of the natural environment, as well as the processes of their changes as a result of natural and anthropogenic causes. The only possible way to obtain such information is monitoring - a system of observation, study, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment. Monitoring consists of several successive stages: environmental assessment (measuring the degree of environmental distress on the “norm-pathology” scale); environmental diagnostics (identification and ranking of “pathogenic” factors of inanimate nature that cause environmental problems in a natural object); environmental regulation (determining the limits of the values of factors, going beyond which transforms the state of the ecosystem from favorable to unfavorable); environmental forecast (forecast of the degree of unfavorability of the ecosystem in the future); environmental quality management (closely related to the previous one, since one should themselves, by reducing the values of hazardous impacts, influence the ecosystem).
In terms of scale, monitoring systems can be local (individual enterprises), regional (national) and global (interstate). Since global environmental problems are of particular concern to the world community at the present stage, we will focus on a more detailed consideration of them. These problems are the result of human activity that is not consistent with the laws of natural development. The most important global environmental problems of our time are:
- Global climate change.
Global climate change is associated with the “greenhouse effect” caused by emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, methane and other “greenhouse gases” into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a product of fuel combustion and deforestation and makes a significant contribution to global warming. “About 70 billion tons of CO are released into the atmosphere per year from natural processes 2 ; When burning gaseous fuels, an additional 15 billion tons of CO are generated 2 . Over 25 years, the CO content 2 grew by 2-4 decimal percent per year." “According to expert calculations, during 1990-2100. the average global temperature at the Earth's surface may increase by 1.5-5.8 O WITH" . Among the reasons that cause the “greenhouse effect” are energy production (use of fossil fuels) - 50%, emissions of ozone-depleting substances - 20%, activity of tropical forests (emissions as a result of combustion and natural decay) - 15%, agricultural production (emission of methane from livestock farms, fertilization and waste disposal) - 15%. It is expected that climate change will have widespread consequences - melting of polar ice, and as a result, rising sea levels, flooding of densely populated coastal lowlands and island states, desertification, increased drought in arid and semi-arid areas, which will negatively affect agricultural production, possibly also shifting the boundaries of natural climatic zones from the equator to the poles, requiring the resettlement of people and the relocation of economic objects. According to available data, “the greatest impact on global climate change, based on carbon dioxide emissions per capita, is exerted by industrialized countries (USA 19.61 tons/year, Canada 17 tons/year, Belgium 10.67 tons /year, Germany 9.87 t/year)". The concentration of substances harmful to human health in large cities exceeds medical standards tens of times. Acid rain damages forests, lakes and soil. “For example, in Europe, the annual damage from forest loss caused by air pollution is estimated at $35 billion.” .
- Destruction of the Earth's ozone layer.
This phenomenon was first noted in 1975, and already in 1985 the international Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted, which protects living organisms from excess ultraviolet radiation coming from space and which can destroy plankton, which forms the basis of the food chain in the World Ocean. The increase in ultraviolet radiation negatively affects human health and has a significant impact on food production (the productivity of some plant species is reduced). The Montreal Protocol (1987) significantly limits the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, the most destructive of which is chlorofluorocarbon-12, or freon, which is widely used in air conditioners, refrigeration units, aerosol sprinklers, in the production of foam plastics and fire extinguishing agents. “As part of the Montreal Protocol, it was possible to ban the production and consumption of 100 types of chemicals that destroy the ozone layer. Many of these substances contribute to global warming. Overall, global consumption of such compounds has decreased by more than 95%."
- Acid rain.
The problem of acid rain made itself felt in Western Europe and North America in the late 50s. In the last decade, it has become global due to increased emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds. The main source of sulfur oxide emissions is thermal power plants and other stationary sources when burning fossil fuels (88%). The fuel and energy complex also produces 85% of nitrogen oxide emissions. Environmental pollution with nitrogen oxides occurs from livestock enterprises and the use of fertilizers. The economic losses associated with acid rain are varied. Thus, hundreds of lakes in Scandinavia and the British Isles, primarily due to acidification of water bodies, became fishless. Soil acidification is one of the main reasons for the drying out of temperate forests in the northern hemisphere: damage to European forests is estimated at 118 million cubic meters. m of wood per year. Annual damage to forestry in European countries is estimated at at least $30 billion, which is three times the annual environmental expenditures of European countries.
- Reduction of forest cover.
The destruction of forest resources negatively affects the state of atmospheric air, water systems, flora and fauna. Every year, an area of forest equal to the size of Austria is lost. At the current rate of deforestation, their area by the beginning of the 21st century. decreased by almost 40%. Of particular concern is the deforestation of tropical forests, about half of which were destroyed in the 20th century. According to experts, their annual losses currently amount to 16-17 million hectares. Forests, as we know, are “light”; their reduction leads to a reduction in the absorption of carbon dioxide, soil erosion, a reduction in the diversity of flora and fauna, degradation of water basins, and a decrease in the amount of fuel and industrial wood. “To the greatest extent, the processes of forest area reduction are characteristic of South America (reduction by 221 million hectares), Africa, Asia and the countries of the Pacific basin (reduction of the area covered by forest by 2 times). At the same time, regions of Europe are characterized by stabilization and even a slight increase in forest area.” It should be noted that in underdeveloped countries there is predatory deforestation, but in countries with developed economies, on the contrary, any efforts are being made to increase green cover. For example, “Nigeria may lose all the forests on its territory in the next decade, and Poland plans to lose all the forests on its territory by 2020.” increase your forest land by exactly 30%."
- Desertification.
The main reasons for this are deforestation, overuse of pastures and climate warming. “Every year the area of deserts increases by 6 million hectares, and currently it amounts to 120 million hectares.” . On June 17, 1994, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification was adopted. According to the UN Program, “a quarter of the landmass on Earth is under threat of desertification, and this directly affects over 250 million people. More than 1 billion people in more than a hundred countries may be left without a source of livelihood as the productivity of arable land and pastures declines.”
- Water pollution.
According to experts, in some regions of the Earth, 80% of all human diseases are caused by poor quality water. “In 1990 about 1.3 billion people in developing countries lacked access to safe drinking water and 2 billion lived in unsanitary conditions.” In addition, pollution of water systems with industrial waste and chemicals is increasing all over the world, among which the greatest danger is oil and petroleum products, pesticides, and synthetic substances.
- Declining biodiversity.
Currently, biological diversity ranges from 10 to 30 million species of animals and plants. Humans have been influencing species diversity for thousands of years, but only in recent decades has this impact taken on alarming consequences. “It is expected that in the period from 1990 to 2020. Global species diversity could be lost by up to 15%, meaning up to 150 species could become extinct every day."
There are other global environmental problems. Thus, “the global specific consumption of energy resources and raw materials leads to irreparable depletion of natural resources and irreversible changes in the environment. This conclusion is contained in the report of the Washington Institute for Environmental Monitoring (1998). Over the past 25 years, global wood consumption has doubled, paper consumption has increased 6 times, grain consumption has increased 3 times, energy consumption has increased 5 times, and fish catch has increased by 500%.” During this period, industrial waste pollution of water, air and soil increased sharply. In this regard, environmental protection and rational use of natural resources become necessary conditions for the survival of mankind.
To increase the effectiveness of environmental activities at the national level, states are forced to take coordinated measures to protect their own environment. These main factors predetermine the need for international legal regulation of environmental protection and natural resource management and the development of cooperation in this area.
SECTION 2
FEATURES OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC POLICY IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
- Sustainable Development Strategy
Formation of an effective economic system is a key issue for the economy of any country. The current stage of development of the world economy is that without a holistic systemic approach to transformation, it is impossible to achieve progress and sustainable growth. As practice shows, the process of development of economic relations in highly developed countries is based on the triad “quality process - ecology”, where ecology acts as a boundary condition for the development of society, including its economic component. The rate of change in natural conditions has become quite commensurate with the rate of change in society itself, and the entire world civilization is currently aimed at a new development strategy, which is called the “sustainable development strategy.” A fundamental issue in the formation of the concept of sustainable development and greening of the economy is the question of the mechanisms for implementing such a concept. “In this case, there are usually three approaches:
1) direct regulation associated with the influence of the state, regulatory, administrative and control measures, direct regulation, etc.;
2) economic incentives associated with the development of market mechanisms;
3) mixed mechanisms combining the first two approaches."
Environmental policy around the world has undergone significant changes over the past decades. So, if in the 50s of the twentieth century. its essence was the dispersion of harmful emissions over a wider area, then from the late 60s of the twentieth century. the creation of various types of treatment facilities began, and in the 80s of the last century, the economic practices of developed countries came to the conclusion that capturing harmful substances in one environment and then placing them in another is far from the best solution to the problem. Therefore, the main task of environmental policy can be considered the need to minimize emissions.
harmful substances during the production process, ensure safe storage of hazardous waste and a high degree of recycling.
2.2. Stages of greening of developed countries
The reason for the start of the greening process on a global scale was the energy crisis in 1973-1974. During this period, some countries of the European Union (EU) switched to saving natural resources through environmentally friendly production technologies and began to widely use economic methods to stimulate the environment and rational energy use. “Analysis of the world experience of developed countries in the direction of greening allows us to identify several main stages presented in Table. 2.1"
Table 2.1 Stages of greening in the context of global development
|
Stages |
Time frame |
Characteristics of the stage |
Note |
Strategy name |
|
Stage I |
1950-1960 |
The main idea: the larger the area over which dispersion occurs, the less dangerous it is. |
Prerequisites for greening |
Diffusion and dilution strategy |
|
Stage II |
1970s |
Administrative-command methods of environmental management were mainly used due to the strong influence of Keynesian principles |
Consists of pollution control and end-of-pipe equipment |
Pollution Control Strategy |
|
Stage III |
1980s |
There is increasing interest in market methods of regulating environmental management: environmental taxes, collateral system, trading in pollution rights |
Leaders: Denmark, Sweden, Netherlands |
Strategy for recycling waste and other pollutants Pollution prevention strategy |
|
Stage IV |
from the 1990s to the present. |
The concept of sustainable development is being intensively developed, aimed at harmonizing the relationship between man and society |
Work in this direction is still relevant today. |
Environmental management systems, prevention "end of pipe" operating principle |
2.3. The role of the state in environmental and economic policy
The most important trend noted by a number of experts in developed countries is the reduction of direct regulation and government intervention in the field of environmental management. The role of the state is, first of all, to provide a legislative basis for the implementation of state programs for environmental protection and regulation of private business activities in this area, organizing a system of control over the implementation of relevant provisions of the law.
The competence, tasks and functions of government environmental authorities in a number of developed countries were determined by the basic laws on environmental protection. Such “laws were adopted: in Japan - in 1967, in Sweden and the USA - in 1969, in Denmark - in 1973, in Germany - in 1974.” . In addition to the Basic Law, there are also numerous legislative acts regulating certain environmental and environmental-economic aspects: regional, by environmental components, and economic sectors.
Existing methods of greening management can be divided into several groups - administrative; economic; market.
After the 1972 UN Conference on Environmental Protection in Stockholm, many countries of the world community began to implement coordinated environmental policies, including in the field of environmental management and environmental protection. During this period, special state environmental protection bodies were created in many countries. “For example, in Great Britain the Ministry of Environmental Protection was created in 1970, in 1971 similar ministries were created in Denmark, Holland, Australia, France, Canada, 1972 in Austria, Norway, in 1973 - in Italy"[6, p.238].
In early December 1997, at the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention in the Japanese city of Kyoto, a protocol was adopted, according to which the industry of developed countries must reduce total greenhouse gas emissions from 2008 to 2012 by about 5 percent compared to the level of emissions in 1990 by differentiating them changes in different countries. “For example, by 8% in most European countries, by 7% in the USA, by 6% in Canada, Japan, Poland”[7, p.85].
In turn, there are quite a large number of international cooperation programs on solving environmental problems on the European continent. Thus, in the European Union, the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) is studying environmental problems, whose experts “have developed indicators of the environmental aspects of sustainable development, presented in Table. 2.2. For individual groups of countries, their own sustainable development strategy guidelines can be formulated, which will take into account the existing resource potential and the state of infrastructure support for the development of productive forces, presented in Appendix A."
Table 2.2.
|
Indicators of environmental aspects of sustainable development (developed by the UN) |
|
|
Protecting the quality of freshwater resources and water supplies |
|
|
Protecting the oceans, all types of seas and coastal areas |
|
|
Integrated approach to planning and maintenance of land resources |
|
|
Combating desertification and droughts |
|
|
Sustainable development of mountain areas |
|
|
Support for agricultural and rural development |
|
|
Preventing deforestation |
|
|
Conservation of biological diversity |
|
|
Environmentally sound management of biotechnology |
|
|
Atmosphere protection |
|
|
Environmentally friendly solid waste management |
|
|
Environmentally friendly handling of toxic chemicals |
|
|
Environmentally friendly handling of hazardous waste |
|
|
Safety and environmentally friendly handling |
|
“In the early 70s of the last century, the main working body was created within the commission - “Senior Advisors” to the governments of the EEC countries on environmental issues. The main problems that were developed in the EEC in accordance with its program were the following:
- exchange of information regarding environmental policies and strategies of EEC member countries;
- air pollution problems;
- developing environmental information needed for economic research and policy development;
- natural resource management in terms of environmental criteria;
- environmental aspects of economic development planning;
- development of a common approach to control the release of toxic chemicals and toxic waste into the environment;
- research into methods for creating “national standards for protecting water from major pollutants;
- the role of transport in the urban environment;
- economic assessment of damage caused to the environment;
- environmental problems that cover large areas (common bodies of water and areas of the atmosphere), tourism development"[9, p.427-428].
In addition to cooperation within the UNECE, in European countries there are special regional cooperation programs on nature conservation, which are implemented by global intergovernmental organizations (for example, OECD, REC, UNESCO, IAEA):
- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - created in 1961, 24 states participate;
- regional environmental center for Central and Eastern Europe - Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC) - created in 1990, participants - states of Central and Eastern Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia , Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia), USA, Commission of the European Communities;
- The United Nations Human Environment Program (UNEP) was established at the Stockholm Conference in June 1972. The headquarters is located in Nairobi (Kenya), regional offices in Geneva, New York, Beirut, Bangkok, Mexico City;
- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) - created in 1957
The main activities of these organizations are as follows:
- OECD “analysis of economic and environmental problems (air pollution, hazardous waste disposal, etc.) and their solutions; development of recommendations for improving environmental protection methods; consultations; financial and technical assistance; exchange of information on environmental issues, assistance in solving problems of economic and social development”;
REC “promoting cooperation between various environmental parties, groups and movements, providing them with financial assistance in solving environmental problems; implementation of projects and programs to prevent degradation and restore natural resources; promoting the development of a market economy; environmental education" ;
UNEP “the problem of soil and water protection, combating the spread of deserts; the problem of environmental education, training and information transfer; trade, economic and technological aspects of environmental problems; protection of the World Ocean from pollution; protection of flora and fauna, conservation and maintenance of the genetic resources of the globe; the problem of energy and energy resources; assessment and management of the natural environment" ;
IAEA “implementation of programs aimed at ensuring nuclear safety and protecting the natural environment from radioactive contamination (develops rules for the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, conducts an examination of the activities of nuclear power plants, assesses their impact on the environment, establishes radiation safety standards and verifies their implementation)” .
In recent years, there has been a tendency to increase the number of government bodies, including line ministries responsible for the state of the environment in their “own area,” and expand their functions in this area. On the other hand, in almost all developed countries central bodies have appeared that manage environmental protection policy on a national scale.In Japan - this is the Environmental Protection Agency, in France - the corresponding ministry, in Germany - the Federal Office for the Environment, in the USA - the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, which has its branches in a number of states. Structure of federal bodies responsible for environmental management is presented in Appendix B.The functions of the above departments include: development of environmental protection measures, analysis of changes in the environmental situation, approval of environmental assessment acts.
Thus, it can be noted that government intervention in environmental management in developed countries is quite significant. Hierarchical management systems have been created, which highlight the goals of environmental policy, its objects (air basin, water systems, land resources, forests, etc.), as well as levels of implementation (national, local). A toolkit has been developed, including environmental monitoring, process management, financing and incentives for environmental activities.
2.4. Economic incentives for environmental activities
Regulation of environmental activities in developed countries is supported by economic incentives (subsidies for the purchase of environmental equipment, preferential targeted lending, tax breaks).
The basis for environmental policy and its financing in most developed countries was the principle of a normative quality state of the environment, which is achieved by establishing standards for various types of pollution. The transition to these standards is ensured by an appropriate tax policy, which is both punitive and lenient, stimulating in nature, the use of subsidies, preferential lending, the introduction of pollution trading systems or payments for their standard and above-standard levels, and fines. Non-economic levers include direct bans on production, administrative decisions to close enterprises, as well as criminal prosecution.
“As economic incentive measures that create internal incentives, it is possible to:
Establishment of increased depreciation standards for fixed production assets for environmental purposes. (The experience of countries such as Japan, the USA, Germany) shows the optimality of annual write-off of 20-25% of the cost of such equipment. An incentive to replace obsolete equipment may be the differentiation of increased tax rates on property and fixed assets after the end of the depreciation period);
Establishment of tax benefits for taxes credited to the local or regional budget and provided by the relevant authorities;
The development of preferential taxation of environmental types of products or work must be carried out simultaneously with compensation for lost budget revenues through the introduction of indirect taxes on environmentally hazardous products or work.”
In general, in countries with developed economies, a system of economic incentives and environmental impacts has developed, which is a set of tax and credit measures. Among them, the most widespread are those associated with the provision of direct or indirect assistance to private capital from the state. This policy, which is carried out in countries with classical market relations, consists of providing economic assistance and certain benefits to entrepreneurs carrying out activities aimed at improving the state of the natural environment. There are so-called direct and hidden subsidies for these activities. The main forms of providing direct economic assistance from the state to the private business sector in order to stimulate environmental investments in the economies of Western Europe and North America are, firstly, direct targeted subsidies (centralized or local), and secondly, direct loans to solve various environmental problems. “It is worth noting that among all foreign economic forms of environmental management (and there are more than one hundred and fifty of them in total), it is the form of subsidies that accounts for approximately 30%.”
In the EU countries, progressive changes have already taken place in the formation of national environmental policies. In particular, environmentally friendly technologies and management methods are being introduced at an accelerated pace, environmental and economic regulators are being used to stimulate the environmental activities of commodity producers and consumers, appropriate legislative frameworks for rationalizing environmental management are being developed, taking into account environmental requirements and standards, and the information and statistical base of environmental management and regulation is being strengthened. .
A comparative analysis of the use of economic instruments for regulating environmental management in developed countries is presented in Table. 2.3.
Environmental criteria for the effectiveness of economic incentive measures can be considered:
The degree of compliance of actual levels of resource consumption, resource saving, energy intensity with the established specific standards for the range of products and resources;
The degree of compliance with accepted regulatory burdens on the environment;
The share of industries that take into account the environmental factor in their activities;
Efficiency of capital investments for environmental purposes.
Table 2.3. Use of economic instruments for environmental management
|
Countries Tools |
Great Britain |
USA |
France |
Germany |
Japan |
|
1. Resource payments |
|||||
|
2. Payments for pollution: Atmospheres Water Solid waste Noise |
|||||
|
3. Ecological tax in prices products |
|||||
|
4. Differentiation income tax |
|||||
|
5. Ecological insurance |
|||||
|
6. Subsidies (grants, tax benefits, loans preferential, etc.) |
|||||
|
7. Market tools (policy compensations, bubble principle rights trading for emissions) |
Along with general trends in environmental policy and economic management of environmental management in developed countries, there are also national characteristics inherent in each country. For example, in 1992, the United States adopted a law on environmental crimes, according to which the most persistent violators are punished with a fine of up to 25 thousand dollars for each day of violation, and in conditions of criminal liability - up to two years in prison. “For example, the Louisiana-Pacific wood processing corporation with an annual turnover of 1.7 billion dollars had to pay a fine of 11 million dollars. In addition to paying the fine, the corporation undertook to install new cleaning equipment at its production facility for a total amount of $70 million within two years.” In an advanced economy like Japan, environmental law is primarily focused on the development of health standards. Limitations on emissions and discharges of pollutants have been established for certain sectors of the economy. The Environmental Protection Agency has developed legislative acts on environmental assessment of projects and programs. Laws have also been adopted: on land drainage, on the location of industrial enterprises, on the protection of the inland sea, as well as government recommendations on the implementation of environmental assessment of production. Under public pressure, the most stringent sanitary and hygienic standards for water quality have been developed. Another feature of this country’s environmental policy is the widespread use of a compensation system for damage caused by environmental pollution. Compensation is paid to the victim by the polluting firms.
Thus, economic mechanisms ensure a balance of interests of the state and economic entities (resource users). While maintaining the total amount of taxes, it is advisable to sharply change the proportions in favor of increasing the share of taxes related to the use of natural resources, primarily fees for the right to use natural resources, “green” taxes. This share should grow and constitute a significant part of state budget revenues. This will make it possible to more adequately take into account the impact on the environment, degradation of natural resources and create an incentive to reduce the environmental intensity of the economy. “As studies in the United States have shown, the introduction of even a limited number of “green” taxes would allow us to annually collect an additional $100 billion for the federal budget. Environmental excise taxes have become widespread in European countries. In France, Germany, Italy there is a tax on lubricating oils, in Norway and Sweden there is a tax on mineral fertilizers and pesticides, which finance the program of sustainable, environmentally balanced agriculture, in Austria and the UK a tax has been introduced on the use of fuel andpetroleum products".
Due to the fact that the goal of sustainable development policy in developed countries is to search for environmental protection instruments that would allow achieving a balance between the requirements of environmental and economic efficiency, environmental or “green” taxes can play a stimulating role for the development of environmentally-balanced industries and types of activities, and “overwhelming” for nature-intensive activities. Here the state gives only the initial impetus, influencing prices with the help of taxes, and market mechanisms do the rest - they influence the behavior of producers and consumers, the demand and supply of products depending on the degree of their environmental friendliness.
2.5. Market mechanisms of environmental and economic policy
If we turn to world experience, we can see that the initially formed mechanism of administrative management of natural resources is gradually undergoing changes and evolving towards the development of market methods. For example, “in the USA, Germany and other countries with market economies, the task arose of transforming the administrative management systems existing in these countries in the field of environmental protection. A distinctive feature of such transformations was the widespread use of economic regulators to encourage environmental entrepreneurship while maintaining state control and regulation in this area."[6, p.230].
The main focus of the environmental policy of the European Union is to encourage producers and consumers to rationally use natural resources and use environmentally friendly technologies, i.e. transition to eco-friendly technologies. Since the 1990s, EU environmental policy has seen a move away from direct administration to more flexible ones, incl. including market elements, mechanisms (for example, trading in greenhouse gas emission quotas, based on the principle of “shared responsibility” between participants - government, business, public, consumers). “We can give the following classification of modern existing market instruments:
- trade permits introduced to reduce emissions (for example, CO emissions quotas 2 ) or saving natural resources (for example, fishing quotas);
- environmental taxes introduced to change prices and thus the policies of consumers and producers;
- environmental contributions introduced to fully or partially cover the costs of environmental services, measures to reduce water pollution, and waste disposal;
- environmental subsidies and incentives designed to stimulate the development of new technologies, create new markets for environmental goods and services, and support the achievement of high levels of environmental protection by companies;
- liability and compensation schemes, the purpose of which is to ensure adequate compensation for the consequences of activities hazardous to the environment, as well as the costs of preventing and restoring damage.”
As the experience of environmental work in the United States and other countries shows, the sale of pollution rights plays a special role in this process. The US, for example, moved to trading excess emissions reductions starting in 1984. The essence of this approach is that a company that has managed to reduce the total emission of a pollutant at its enterprise below the level established for it has the right to sell the excess emissions reduction, for example, to a neighboring company in a given region or to use it in the interests of reconstructing or expanding its own production. This approach makes it possible to reduce the total emission of pollutants at lower costs. The policy for trading surplus emissions reductions is based on the compensation procedure and the so-called “bubble principle” or “bubble principle”. In this case, the source of pollution is not a single pipe, but an entire enterprise or even enterprises in a separate region.
It should be noted that these types of methods are not purely market in the sense that the rules for their use are established by the state, and the level of environmental standards remains the basis. Their market element is that companies can sell “excess” pollution to each other, i.e., it may be more profitable for one company to buy the pollution “saved” by another company in exchange for installing additional treatment equipment. By the mid-1980s, for example, the total savings from all bubbles in the United States amounted to more than $1 billion.The policy of trading rights to pollution also involves the use of a method according to which a firm that avoids installing its own treatment equipment must pay part of the cost of such equipment installed at the enterprises of other firms. By the beginning of the 90s, more than 10 thousand similar transactions were concluded in the United States.
A number of EU countries have introduced a “carbon tax”. Since January 1990, in Finland, according to the law, this tax has been levied on fossil fuels (with the exception of automobile fuels). In May 1990, Sweden established the highest carbon tax rate among all EU countries, which significantly increased revenues used for environmental purposes. A tax is also applied for sulfur emissions due to the combustion of coal, peat, and oil. The “hydrocarbon tax” was introduced in Norway in 1991. Currently, it applies to the use of mineral fuels for both domestic and industrial purposes; coal; gasoline; diesel fuel; oil and gas produced on offshore platforms.
The experience of foreign countries shows that environmental policies based on fundamental legal legislation effectively use environmental taxation. Environmental taxes in various forms and degrees of implementation exist in all EU countries. Currently, some EU countries are transitioning to a restructured, increased tax on environmental pollution. In countries such as Great Britain, Italy, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Norway, there is a practice of replacing part of the taxes on labor and capital with environmental taxes (for example, for environmental pollution). Since the mid-90s, a number of environmental taxes have been introduced in the European Union at the level of member countries, including energy taxes (excise duties on motor fuel and taxes on carbon dioxide emissions), and transport taxes. At the same time, taxes on environmental pollution and natural resource management play a minor role in the income received from them. These environmental taxes accounted for between 5 and 13% of total tax revenues in the 15 EU member states in 2008.
The “greening” of the tax systems of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, which includes a transition from income taxation towards indirect taxation, an increase in the number of environmental taxes, and the abolition of subsidies to “environmentally polluted areas”, has affected the state of the environment in these countries. A number of countries (Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands) have introduced taxation of all hazardous industries, sometimes the amount of environmental costs of polluting enterprises reaches 50%.
Denmark applies a tax on energy consumption (except natural gas and petrol) and taxes on emissions or discharges.
The “polluter pays” principle forms the basis of environmental charges in the Netherlands. The following taxes are common in this country: on fuel (coal mining), on energy, on waste, on domestic and ground water, excise taxes on petroleum products, and transport tax.
In the USA, a special environmental tax applies. Over the past decade, the practice of financing environmental programs through the introduction of special taxes has developed quite widely. Superfund, the most famous federal program in the United States, funded primarily by taxes, has existed for more than 20 years. Its goal is to clean up old and abandoned waste disposal sites and other areas where there is significant contamination. Some differentiated taxes apply to states:
For hazardous chemicals (state of Wisconsin - $2000 for each active component of a pesticide; state of Iowa for nitrogen fertilizers $0.75/t);
Deduction of a fixed percentage for the implementation of environmental programs (Delaware - 2.9% of taxes go to combat chemical waste; Missouri - 2.9% from the sale of real estate; some states deduct 1-2% from the sale of fuel and/or cars; The states of Washington, Idaho, and Minnesota deduct taxes from the sale of tobacco products).
The states of New Jersey, Washington, and Louisiana have recently used a pollution fee system based on determining the maximum level of enterprise costs for environmental protection measures.
A distinctive feature of the United States in the field of collecting environmental fees is the establishment of fees for granting the right to pollute the atmosphere - over 30 states charge for the discharge of wastewater, 35 states for the use of drinking water, about 20 states for the disposal of hazardous and solid waste, etc. . All these payments provide very significant income, which is used for environmental activities.
Providing tax benefits is a widely used tool in practice. It involves providing benefits and accelerated depreciation to “environmentally friendly” enterprises. For example, in some EU countries a fixed percentage of capital investments for environmental protection is allocated to this item of expenditure in the budget: Norway - 1.6%, Sweden - 5%, Germany - 9%.
In countries outside the European Union, the fixed percentage of capital investments for environmental protection is: Japan - 2.6%, USA - 4.5%.
One of the strategic directions for implementing environmental transformations is the development of entrepreneurship. An important link in ensuring environmental safety and environmental health is the creation of environmental entrepreneurship, which refers to the production and sale of goods, works and services aimed at preventing harm to the environment and public health. “In Canada, for example, there are more than 3,500 companies producing environmental equipment and related services. In Japan since 1988 there is a special expert council on environmental business.” With the introduction of strict restrictions in the field of environmental protection in Japan, entrepreneurs began to actively promote the introduction of new technologies in this area. Such activities are currently called “eco-business”. The most profitable environmental business in Japan is the production of pollution control equipment, which is considered one of the most advanced in the world. This is especially true for equipment for the removal and disposal of household waste. It should be noted that the eco-business market has not yet been defined; therefore, its development requires government regulation and financial assistance, including subsidies, loans, and tax reductions.
In the EU countries there are more than 10 thousand companies associated with environmental entrepreneurship, whose total sales exceed 40 billion.” euros per year. In the United States, environmental regulation, having affected almost all sectors of the economy, gave impetus to the intensive development of a new and very profitable area of investment of capital. There has been an increase in the number of firms specializing in environmental advisory services, including waste management companies. Environmentally-oriented products in the United States hold a strong position in the production of both industrial goods (cleaning equipment, instrumentation equipment, clean technologies and new materials, etc.) and consumer goods (from natural foods to harmless paints).
SECTION 3
PRACTICAL TASK
Problem 1
Determine the annual economic damage from river pollution. Dnieper industrial enterprise, if the annual volume of wastewater is 1238300 m3 with a concentration of petroleum products of 55 mg/l, solids of 90 mg/l. During the warm period of the year (from April to September), the volume of wastewater is reduced to 1/3 of the annual volume, and the concentration of petroleum products is reduced to 29 mg/l.
Solution:
To calculate the economic damage from river pollution. Dnepr we use the formula Υв = γ · δ k · M, where
Υ in this is an economic estimate of the annual loss;
γ monetary unit, amounting to 443 UAH/conventional. T.;
δk - a constant that has equal value (0.34);
M is the reduced mass of the annual discharge of impurities from a given source into the river. Dnieper (UAH/year).
The reduced mass is calculated using the formula Μ = ∑ A i m i
m TV.things = 1238300*90*10 -6 =111.447 (t/year)
m oil.product.etc. = 183*412766.6*29*10 -6 =2190.552 (t/year)
m nef.prod.kh.p. = 182*825533.4*55*10 -6 =8263.589 (t/year)
m neft.prod. =2190.552+8263.589=10454.141 (t/year)
M= 111.447*0.05+10454.141*20=209088.392 (UAH/year)
γ = 443 UAH/conv. T.; δk = 0.34;
Y in =443*0.34*209088.392=31492893.603 UAH/year
Answer: annual economic damage from river pollution Dnepr industrial enterprise is 31492893.603 UAH/year.
Problem 2
Determine the annual economic damage from air pollution from a municipal solid waste (MSW) dump in a suburban area, if it is known that during the combustion of solid waste the following is released: wood dust - 0.5 t per year, silicon dioxide - 0.9 t, phenols - 0.4 t for a year. The emission temperature is 100 °C, the particle sedimentation speed is 21 cm/s. (Reference data: air velocity module values 3 m/s, average annual air temperature in the territory 21°C).
Solution:
To calculate the annual economic damage from air pollution from a solid waste dump in a suburban area, we use the formulaΥ ammm = γ δ ƒ Μ, where
Υ ammm - amount of damage, UAH/year,
γ - monetary value of a unit of emissions, amounting to 33 UAH/conv. T.;
δ indicator of the relative danger of air pollution;
ƒ correction taking into account the nature of dispersion of impurities in the atmosphere;
Μ - reduced mass of annual release from the source, arb. t./year
M=0.5*19.6+0.9*83.2+0.4*310=208.68
γ = 33 UAH/conv. T.; δ is a table value, which is 8, ƒ 10, since the settling speed of particles is 21 cm/s.
Y ammm =3.3*8*10*208.68=55091.52 UAH/year
Answer: the annual economic damage from air pollution from a solid waste dump in a suburban area is 55,091.52 UAH/year.
Problem 3
Determine the amount of payments per month for pollution of the residential area of a regional center with a population of 120,000 people. by rail, if the volume of diesel fuel consumed is 500 tons per month.
Solution:
To calculate the amount of payment per month for pollution of the residential area of the regional center by rail, we use the formula
Pvp = ∑ Мі x Нпі, where
i = 1
Mi is the amount of actually sold fuel of the i type, in tons;
Нпі - tax rates (indexed rates) in the current year per ton of the i-th pollutant, in hryvnias and kopecks.
Mi = 500 t./month. Let's assume that the sulfur content in diesel fuel is more than 0.2 wt. %, then Нпі = 79.90 UAH/t. Let's index the tax rate, then Np i =79.90*1.12=89.48*1.13=101.11*1.14=115.26 UAH/t.
Pvp = 500 * 115.26 = 57630 UAH.
Answer: size monthly payments for pollution of the residential area of the district center is UAH 57,630.
Problem 4
A solid waste dump with special protective equipment is located at a distance of 2.0 km from the city. Determine the amount of monthly payments for the disposal of solid household waste, if the monthly volume of hazard class II waste within the limit is 50 tons.
Solution:
To determine the amount of the monthly payment for the disposal of solid waste, we use the formula
Prv = ∑ (Npi x Mli x Kt x Ko), where
i = 1
Нпі - tax rates (indexed rates) in the current year per ton of the i-th pollutant, in hryvnias and kopecks;
Млі - volume of waste of the i type in tons (t);
Kt is a correction factor that takes into account the location of the waste disposal site;
Ko is a correction factor equal to 3 and is applied in the case of waste disposal in landfills that do not completely eliminate pollution of atmospheric air or water bodies.
Npi = 29.96 UAH/t. Let's index the tax rate, thenNpi = 29.96 * 1.12 =33.55*1.13=37.91*1.14=43.21 UAH/t.;Mli =50 t.; Kt = 3, so the waste dump is located 3 km away. zone from the city;Ko = 3, since the waste hazard level is highly unsafe.
Prv= 43.21 *50*3*3=19444.5 UAH/month.
Answer: the amount of monthly payments for disposal of solid household waste is 19444.5 UAH/month.
CONCLUSIONS
At all stages of the evolution of society, man was closely connected with the environment. However, only with the transition to industrial civilization, human impact on nature increased somewhat, which led to the destruction and degradation of natural systems and put humanity at risk of an environmental crisis. The modern environmental threat is caused by a combination of local and global environmental problems, the solution of which must be carried out jointly.
In general, environmental policy remains the most important area of activity for developed countries. An extensive system of environmental legislation has been formed in this area, the norms of which are successfully implemented in practice. The system of environmental management regulation in highly developed countries is the most diversified and flexible, it operates with a significant range of economic levers and instruments, primarily an incentive plan, that can overcome environmental problems and increase the efficiency of involving the natural factor in the restoration process.
The above study showed that the characteristic features of environmental and economic policy in developed countries are:
- strict control over compliance with environmental and economic standards;
- refusal of direct government intervention in the process of environmental management;
- government agencies economically stimulate and support the environmental activities of the private sector through subsidies, tax breaks, loans, an accelerated depreciation regime for environmental equipment, and the purchase and sale of pollution rights;
- the use of regulators that force polluters to limit their environmentally destructive activities, as well as regulators that force resource users to improve the state of the environment;
- providing investment to the private sector for the acquisition and development of technically advanced, environmentally friendly equipment;
- price incentives for the production of environmentally friendly products and providing them with preferential conditions in the market.
LIST OF SOURCES USED
- Economics of Environmental Management: Lecture notes for full-time and part-time students of the specialty: 7.03050401, 8.03050401 “Enterprise Economics” (EPR), Specialization: Economics of the Fuel and Energy Complex Enterprise (EPEC) / Compiled by: A.V. Lyakhov. - Donetsk: DonNTU, 2012. - 163 p.
- Lukyanchikov N.N., Potravny I.M.Economics and organization of environmental management: Textbook for university students studying in the field of “Economics” - 4th ed., revised. and additional - Golden fund of Russian textbooks - 687 pp.
- Vasilyeva E.E. Economics of Environmental Management / Belarusian State University, Faculty of Economics. Educational and methodological complex Minsk, 2002. 119 p.
- Ayushieva L.K. Improving the taxation system in order to green the economy // Bulletin of the Buryat State University UDC 336.22+338:574, 2012, No. 2, pp. 53-55.
- Guryeva M.A. Greening the economy: international experience //Army and Society, 2012, No. 2, pp. 1-12.
- Lukyanchikov N.N., Potravny I.M. Economics and organization of environmental management: Textbook for universities.-2nd ed. reworked and additional M.: UNITY DANA, 2002. 454 p.
- Safranov T.A. Ecological foundations of environmental management: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. Lvov: “New World 2000”, 2003. 248 p.
- Danylyshyn B.M. Khvesik M.A., Golyan V.A. Economics of environmental management: Textbook. K.: Condor, 2010. 465 p.
- Dubas R.G. Environmental economics. Tutorial. (2nd ed. stereotype). K.: KNT, 2009. 448 p.
- Poddubny I.A., Slyusarenko V.K. International environmental and economic activity: Textbook. Kh.: Publishing House "INZHEK", 2005. 200 p. Russian language
- Bobylev S.N., Khodzhaev A.Sh. Environmental economics. Textbook. Moscow, 2003. 567 p.
- Zerschikova M.A. Formation of a mechanism for environmental innovation activities in the region// Engineering Bulletin of the Don Issue 1/Volume 15/2011. p.26-32.
- Matveeva E.V. Environmental policy of the European Union. International relationships. Political science. Regional studies // Bulletin of the Nizhny Novgorod University and Moscow N.I. Lobachevsky, 2010, No. 6, pp. 311-317.
APPENDIX A
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY TARGETS
APPENDIX B
MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE US FEDERAL AUTHORITIES RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
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