"Federation".

4. Order of the Office of Rosreestr for St. Petersburg dated May 12, 2015 N P/138 “On approval of the regulations on the Commission of the Office of the Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre and Cartography for St. Petersburg on compliance with the requirements for official conduct of federal civil servants and the resolution of conflicts of interest” .

5. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of December 25, 2008 N 1847 “On the Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre and Cartography”

6. GKINP (GNTA)-17-004-99. “Instructions on the procedure for control and acceptance of geodetic, topographic and cartographic works.” P-you 6-14.

7. Official website of Rosreestr - Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre and Cartography [Electronic resource]. URL: https://rosreestr.ru/site/ (Access date: 12/28/2016).

© Sytina N.N., 2017

N.N. Sytin

1st year master's student at St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

Email: [email protected]

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERGROUND COMMUNICATION LINES IN THE CITY INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEM

annotation

When planning and developing cities, more and more attention has recently been paid to the problems of developing underground space. The higher the level of urban improvement and the technical level of industrial enterprises, the higher the requirements for the saturation of the territory with various communications. Experience shows that the most optimal solution to the functioning of the city is the development of an underground communication network. The development of the underground space of the territory affects many factors in the life of modern society. In conditions of dense urban development, expanding the possibilities of using underground space makes it possible to ensure the stable functioning of settlements and significantly lighten the load on urban infrastructure. These are just some of the advantages of developing underground communications. This article discusses possible problems during the process of searching for underground communications and some of the options for resolving them.

Keywords

Underground communications, construction work, geodetic instruments.

Saint-Petersburg State University student Saint-Petersburg, RF

THE VALUE OF UNDERGROUND UTILITY LINES IN URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

During the process of planning and building cities, recently, more attention is paid to the problems of underground space development. The higher the level of development of cities and the technical level of industrial

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL “SYMBOL OF SCIENCE” No. 01-2/2017 ISSN 2410-700Х_

enterprises, the higher the requirements for the density of the various communications. As experience shows, the optimal solution of operational issues of city functioning is the development of underground communication network. Underground space development of the territory affects many factors of modern life. In dense urban areas, expanding opportunities for the use of underground space allows to ensure stable operation of settlements and significantly lighten the load of urban infrastructure. These are just some of the advantages of the development of underground utilities. This article focused on possible problems during the process of searching for underground utility lines and some of the options for resolving them.

Underground utility lines, construction works, geodetic instruments.

If we talk about underground space as a phenomenon in general, then it would not be out of place to mention that its content can be varied. According to their purpose, they are divided into: transport, industrial, energy, storage, public, scientific and engineering underground structures. This article is devoted to the last of these.

Currently, the role of cities in the development of society continues to increase and, as a result, the urban population is increasing. In this regard, paying more attention to the improvement of cities and rural settlements becomes necessary. We should not forget about developing industrial enterprises. All of the above circumstances are just some of the many prerequisites for the development of a utility network.

Engineering communications are linear structures with technological devices on them, designed for transporting liquids, gases, transmitting energy and information. They are divided into two types: underground and aboveground. Underground, as the name suggests, differs from above-ground in that their main parts, for operational reasons, are located underground.

Surveying of underground utilities is carried out in two cases. Firstly, during the construction process, when the trenches are open and visually accessible (as-built survey). Secondly, in cases of absence, loss or insufficient completeness and accuracy of available as-built survey materials (survey of existing underground communications). The latter shooting option is performed almost blindly, which means it requires more time and may contain more questions and inaccuracies.

When carrying out any construction work, it is necessary to collect all available materials about underground structures, as well as conduct reconnaissance work in order to detect already existing underground communications (if any). It is impossible not to take into account the standard distances between objects and security zones of utility networks. Based on the results of the work, as-built documentation is drawn up, including an inspection report and a comparison sheet of deviations of the underground structure from the design.

Information about the system of construction, placement and types of underground communications makes it possible to determine external signs with the help of which the location of hidden networks and, sometimes, their purpose can be established on the ground. In order to determine the type of utilities in the surveyed area, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the nature of the development on the area. Modern multi-storey buildings for residential, administrative and socio-cultural purposes are provided with sewerage, water supply, heating networks and electricity. Knowledge of the obvious external signs of underground communications, as well as the focus of specialization, will allow you to take photographs and draw up plans for the areas being filmed in a shorter time.

In practice, there is often a lack or unreliability of cartographic materials and technical documentation for existing underground utilities. Therefore, in order to preserve and safely operate utility lines, it is necessary to check the accuracy of technical documentation, a clear system of accounting for underground structures and regular updating of plans.

Currently, there are several basic location methods that make it possible to establish the exact location and direction of underground communications, places of depressurization of pipelines and

damage to cable lines in any climate, terrain and soil. These are magnetic, radio wave and electromagnetic methods. In order to achieve the most accurate result using these methods, many technical means are used, including: thermal imagers, ground penetrating radars, metal detectors, leak detectors, route finders and many other devices, the functionality of which does not cease to be improved day by day. But still, the breadth of potential or the expanded scope of searching for the necessary vibrations will not be able to completely get rid of human “help” in the search for engineering communications. No matter how much one would like to bring the operation of any device to complete automation, cartographic and geodetic surveys are not an option. Let us assume that the human factor can lead to errors due to a poor eye or ordinary fatigue of the measurer, for example, but, in any case, the tool should be an auxiliary tool, it should simplify, point out errors and complement the process of human activity. But often, relying on the perfection of technology, qualified workers are neglected.

In dense urban areas, a large accumulation of underground communications can confuse the photographer. Therefore, in order to avoid subsequent erroneous interpretations of the results, one should approach the choice of equipment with strict selectivity. This will reduce the likelihood of false determination of the positions and directions of linear structures. In conclusion, I would like to note that today there is a huge range of equipment, the cost of which varies from tens to several hundred thousand rubles. There are also many private enterprises that carry out all possible types of engineering work. So, a structured and confident approach to organizing and performing work will positively affect the quality of the result, regardless of the multitasking of the device and the level of technical support of the enterprise.

List of used literature:

1. Guide to topographic surveys at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500. Surveying and drawing up plans for underground communications. M.: Nedra, 1975.

2. SP 11-104-97. Engineering and geodetic surveys for construction. 1998

3. SP 11-104-97 Engineering and geodetic surveys for construction. Part II. Carrying out surveys of underground communications during engineering and geodetic surveys for construction. year 2001.

© Sytina N.N., 2017

Farkhutdinova Dilara Ramilevna

student of Bashkir State University, Ufa, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected]

PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHY Abstract

For the progress of cartography, it is always necessary to find more advanced methods for acquiring sources and methods for producing and using maps that increase labor productivity, facilitate and expand the use of maps in practice and in scientific research.

Keywords Cartography, map, perspectives, science, development.

The prospects for the development of cartography are determined by the continuous and rapid growth in the consumption of maps and the increase in their role in the national economy, cultural construction and scientific research.

INTRODUCTION

CABLE LINES
Power lines
Communication lines

WATER PIPES

*Scheme of operation of the central heating station

DOMESTIC SEWAGE

Working chamber
Hatches and hatch covers

Water wells
Thermal wells (chambers)
Sewage wells
Storm drainage
Associated drainage wells
Gas wells
GTS wells

POINTS AND STATIONS

CONCLUSION

UNDERGROUND ENGINEERING COMMUNICATIONS

Live LECTURE

INTRODUCTION

From time immemorial, humanity has strived to make its existence as comfortable as possible. Today, in the new millennium, people are so accustomed to convenience that the slightest decrease in the degree of comfort drives us into a frenzy and plunges us into a state of short-term depression.

But what provides modern man with such an ultra-comfortable existence?.. Fast, high-quality, minimally labor-intensive satisfaction of his natural needs. That is, the opportunity to cook food on a gas stove, and not on a fire or in a stove (although this is the best option from a health point of view), the opportunity to perform hygienic measures with hot water, watch TV, write a letter using the Internet, and warm up in the cold winter by the radiator. And so on and so forth. All this became possible thanks to the development and modernization of special conductors through which elements of comfort move to a person - electricity, cold water, hot water, natural gas, information signals. As one song says: “Electricity, gas, telephone, running water, communal paradise without hassle and worries.”

There are also conductors through which spent (that is, become unnecessary) elements of comfort are removed from us. This is a sewer. We washed something in water or washed ourselves with water, and it became useless. And putting a bucket under the dishwasher in the kitchen and taking its contents outside every hour is completely uncomfortable. The same can be said about the toilet and bathroom. Sewage is essentially a water return.

The role of such supply and discharge channels is played by the so-called engineering communications.

Engineering communications are linear structures designed to transport matter and transmit energy.

All communications are divided into two large primary classification categories:

1. Pipe lines

2. Lines of wires and cables

I want to warn you all right away: in this lecture we will consider only classical (as well as ideal) options and schemes. You will encounter all sorts of nuances, particulars and deviations from classical (as well as ideal) options and schemes in real life - that is, in the course of your work activity or normal life. Now let's get started...

METHODS OF MATTER AND ENERGY TRANSFER

In addition to the underground method (which we will consider further) of transporting matter and transferring energy from one point to another, there are other ways:

Air transportation and transmission (pipelines and conductive lines
located above the ground)

Floating (on the surface of the water)

Underwater-bottom (at the bottom of a reservoir or watercourse)

Underwater-ground (inside the soil under a pond or watercourse) - so-called. siphons

Now we will temporarily move on to a very strict and dry style of presenting the material, since the differentiation of engineering communications is an area of ​​technical knowledge where even teachers are not recommended to joke.

ABOUT PIPELINE LINES (underground, aboveground, etc.)

A pipeline is a hollow linear structure that has a cylindrical shape and serves to transport liquid and gaseous substances (including steam).

According to their purpose, pipelines are divided into two groups:

1. General use

2. Industrial (special) purpose

Depending on what kind of substance is transmitted through the pipe, public lines are divided into two subgroups:

Water utilities

Gas utilities

Industrial pipelines according to the same criterion are divided accordingly into the following subgroups, such as, for example:

Oil pipelines

Fuel oil pipelines

Gasoline pipelines

Acid lines

Air ducts

Steam lines

Combined pipelines (for example, a slurry pipeline intended for
transportation of a mechanical mixture of liquid with certain solids
particles)

There is also such a thing as a garbage pipeline (or simply a garbage chute), through which household waste moves under the influence of gravity. In our post-Soviet countries, garbage chutes exist only in multi-storey buildings.

In a word, any liquid (with or without solid impurities) or gaseous substance, including steam, can be transported through a pipe.

By the way. And what is an overpass?.. It’s not exactly from our region, of course, but the name is very telling, isn’t it?.. Who knows what it is?.. This is a road in the form of a bridge over another road (railway or road). That's all.

UNDERGROUND ENGINEERING COMMUNICATIONS

In accordance with the primary division of all utilities, underground communications are also divided into two categories:

1. Underground pipelines

2. Underground cable lines

But why do we call them underground?.. Because these lines are laid in the ground at one depth or another.

An even trickier question. Why are they being built underground?.. The fact is that in the city this type of installation is most acceptable - so that, as they say, wires and pipes do not get tangled under your feet and do not hit your head.

1. Public underground pipelines

2. Underground pipelines for industrial (special) purposes

We will study underground pipelines for public use only.

PUBLIC UNDERGROUND PIPELINES

Why do we talk about such pipelines as public communications?.. Because water and gas are transmitted through these pipelines - that is, substances of household importance that we use every day to maintain high-quality and mobile life.

They are accordingly divided into two subgroups:

Water underground pipelines

Gas underground pipelines

Water underground pipelines

Depending on what function these pipelines perform, they are divided into two types:

1. Supply water pipelines (pressure only)

2. Discharge (sewage) water pipelines – pressure and non-pressure

Depending on the temperature (and therefore the purpose) of the supplied water, water supply pipes are divided into two types:

Cold (drinking) water pipelines

Hot water pipelines (water intended for daily hygiene and
home heating)

Pipelines designed to supply residents of a populated area with cold water are otherwise simply called water pipes.

Pipelines intended to supply a populated area with hot water are laid in special trays with closing floor slabs (or with upper closing trays), and this linear structure is called a heating main.

Discharge water pipelines are provided to drain waste or excess water into the natural drainage system or canals. At the same time, all drainage waters undergo (at least must undergo) preliminary treatment before they enter a watercourse or reservoir.

According to their functional purpose, drainage (sewage) water communications are divided into three types:

Domestic (domestic and fecal) sewerage

Storm (surface) drainage - to remove excess rain and melt water from
city ​​streets

Associated (ground) drainage (built along the heating main to remove excess
groundwater)

In addition, according to the method of transportation, water outlet pipelines are divided into two types of a different nature:

Pressure pipelines

Non-pressure (gravity, gravity) pipelines

Pressure transportation is carried out using artificially created pressure at pumping stations (KPS or BPS).

Gravity transportation of waste or excess water is carried out using a specially created pipeline slope in one direction or another - where the water flow is supposed to be directed. Water flows by gravity (i.e. on its own) under the influence of natural gravity from the source of water disposal to the first pumping station.

Gas underground pipelines

Gas pipelines are built to transport natural gas to points of consumption.

Based on the magnitude of pressure, they are divided into three types:

1. Low pressure pipelines

2. Medium pressure pipelines

3. High pressure pipelines

CABLE LINES

A cable line is a linear engineering structure consisting of two main parts, which are represented by:

Conductor of energy

Protective shell

Depending on what exactly is transmitted - electric current or information signal - cable lines are divided into two groups:

1. Power (electrical) lines

2. Communication lines

Power lines

Power lines are electrical cables that are designed to transmit electric current from the place of its production (generation) to the consumer.

Based on the voltage of the electric current, the power lines of underground communications are divided into two types:

High voltage lines

Low voltage lines

Communication lines

Communication lines are cable routes that are designed for high-quality transmission of information (information signal) over long distances. With the help of such communications, we are able to transmit and receive images, sound, and texts in good quality.

Divided into three types:

Wired lines (so-called twisted pair)

Coaxial lines

Fiber optic lines

Communication cables are usually laid in a channel - in a special pipe of one diameter or another.

Information, as we know, can be transmitted using free electromagnetic waves (that is, without cables) in any environment - in air, in water, in soil, in the material of building walls.

We classified all underground engineering communications according to the “category-group-(subgroup)-type-type” scheme, that is, from general to specific. Although such a scheme is extremely necessary, it is quite conventional and somewhat confusing in terms of understanding and remembering the presented material. Therefore, we will do things differently - we will highlight the functional types of underground utilities, the name and role of which clearly reflects their purpose.

So, we can logically divide all underground utilities within the city into eight functional types:

1. Water supply

2. Heating main

3. Domestic sewerage

4. Storm drainage (storm drainage)

5. Ground sewerage (associated drainage of the heating main)

6. Gas pipeline

7. Electrical lines

8. Communication lines (GTS) – city telephone network

Now you can relax a little and move on from a strict presentation of the material to a simple (if not “intimate”) conversation about the various types of underground utilities.

Now let's take a short break. Let's go outside, breathe in the gentle May air through a cigarette, and then with a fresh mind we will continue our, so to speak, technical get-together.

WATER PIPES

A water pipeline (together with a sewerage system) is a very ancient structure, which has been used since time immemorial to supply the population of cities with good quality drinking water and then drain it into rivers or special depressions.

In the ancient cities of the world, which have long been considered relict and in which no one has lived for a long time, scientists have discovered water supply and sewerage systems - that is, special channels through which water flowed to people and flowed away from them in an unknown direction. Such channels are made of stone or real metal pipes.

Today we learned how to make pipes from plastic. Therefore, we divide all our underground water pipes into:

Cast iron

Steel

Non-metallic:

A) polyethylene (polyethylene)
b) pvc (polyvinyl chloride)
c) HDPE (low-density polyethylene)

And I will tell you, my dears, that now it is even safer to drink water from non-metallic pipes than from metal ones. What a disgrace... There will come a time when such rust will flow from the taps that none of our household kitchen filters will help. And as always, there is no money to replace pipes in provincial cities.

The main artery of the city's water supply network is called the water conduit. In large cities there are several water pipelines. A water conduit is a wide pipe with a diameter of 600 mm (sometimes a little less), from which distribution pipes of a smaller diameter extend. A network of smaller diameter pipes is called an inter-block network. The inter-block network branches into the yard network. And then the yard network goes into the so-called “interior”, that is, into the intra-house pipelines. But we will not talk about it; it is not the subject of our conversation now. More about her later.

Thus, the entire urban underground water supply network is divided into networks of three orders:

1. First order network (backbone network) – water pipelines

2. Second-order network (inter-quarter network)

3. Third-order network (yard network)

This is a “law of nature”: the lower the order of the network, the smaller the internal diameter of the pipe. And this law applies to all underground pipelines.

Water enters the conduit from a water intake station, which is usually installed in close proximity to the river. Conclusion: the conduit is filled with wonderful natural water. In many cases, of course, water enters the water pipeline from a well, especially in large cities.

Of course, before water enters the main pipe, it undergoes multi-stage preparation so that it can be safely used in everyday life and even drunk.

By the way, you can drink cold tap water without boiling it first. But not recommended. Firstly, it is very cold, you can get a cold in your throat, and secondly, the quality of our water is unstable. It changes all the time - sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse. In general, yes, you can drink it. But I wouldn't recommend it. Boiling is the surest way to ensure that water fully complies with all sanitary standards.

In the water pipeline and in pipes of a lower order, constant pressure is maintained - the water in them is always under a certain pressure. It does not flow in a free stream inside the pipes, as some gentlemen and comrades think, but is constantly replenished from the water intake and thereby slowly moves through the network as one whole, like a solid mass of water, filling the entire space of the pipes. There are a lot of people in the city, especially in a big city, the tap opens often, the pressure constantly drops. What can you do…

The depth of the water pipe in our Central Russian latitudes is from 1.8 m to 2.5 m. Why is this so? This depends on the depth of soil freezing. North and south are very different in this regard, as you understand.

If we see a pipe that is located above this range, then we say that this is a non-standard installation, which can subsequently lead to serious troubles. For example, they are repairing a heating main. What kind of heating mains do we have?.. That’s right, rotten through and through. And the water supply lies on the floor slab of this heating main, which is prohibited. The crew, not suspecting anything, cheerfully begins the repair, the excavator bucket enters the ground and... successfully breaks the water pipe running along the top of the heating main channel. That's all. Do whatever you want.

Water pipes are usually located below all communications. That's how it should be.

So, what else do we need to know about plumbing...

A water supply is a utility service that is channelless. This means that the pipe containing cold drinking water runs directly into the ground. And hot water pipes, as we know, are mainly located in special channels - that is, the outer side of the heat pipes does not come into contact with the ground. There is, of course, ductless installation of heating networks. Okay, we’ll talk about heating main channels a little later, when we get to the technical essence of these communications.

HEATING ROUTE (and about the heating system as a whole)

A heating main is a two-pipe utility line, usually enclosed in a special channel consisting of reinforced concrete trays and floor slabs. In some cases, instead of closing floor slabs, closing top trays are used.

Floor slabs (or top trays) cover the bottom trays, providing reliable protection for the heat pipes.

The heating main is the most complex structure among all communications. For several reasons.

Firstly, a heating main is always two pipes, that is, a water supply pipe (straight pipe) and a water discharge pipe (“return”).

Secondly, the construction of reinforced concrete channels is no less complex a process than laying the pipes themselves.

Thirdly, in order to prevent flooding of the heating main with groundwater (in those places where its level is higher than the level of the heating main), a system of associated drainage pipes is attached closely to the canal. This greatly complicates and delays the installation of the heating main.

Fourthly, the heat pipes themselves are encased in special materials that minimize heat loss. Can you imagine a “bare” heat pipe?.. This is completely unacceptable, since thermal energy simply cannot reach the consumer, it will all be lost on the way to the central heating point. But this mostly applies to old-generation pipes (during repairs). Currently, this practice is becoming increasingly widespread: a leaky pipe is replaced immediately with a new generation pipe - with a ready-made factory heat-insulating “wrapper”. This greatly facilitates the work of replacing and installing old pipelines.

Fifthly, it is necessary to build so-called compensators on heat pipes. Until now, we are seeing U-shaped expansion joints - bends of two pipes in the form of the letter “U” (usually in a horizontal profile) at a certain distance. The compensator plays the role of an absorber of pipe deformations that arise as a result of periodic changes in the physical parameters of the coolant - water (its temperature, pressure). A U-shaped expansion joint is a good way to avoid problems associated with mechanical destruction of pipes, but today it is generally a relic of the past. Recently, they have learned to make direct movable expansion joints that are installed between pipes. On the air heating main line, a U-shaped compensator can have the shape of the letter “U” not only in the horizontal profile, but also in the vertical one.

Let's move on. Water under pressure is supplied to the wide main heat pipe from the thermal power plant, where it undergoes preliminary preparation and enormous heating. From the main pipe, water is distributed through thermal pipelines, which enter the central heating point, where hot water performs a certain heating work (later we will consider the principle diagram of the central heating station) - it gives off heat in heat exchangers. Further, from the central heating point, the so-called distribution heating networks leave, which then enter the buildings where we, the ever-freezing consumers of hot water and heating, sit.

Thus, we can divide the entire heating network of the city into:

1. First order networks (primary) – main heating pipelines

2. Second-order networks (intermediate) – so-called. thermal inputs (from main pipes to central heating substations)

3. Third-order networks (secondary) – heat distribution pipelines

Main heat pipes are made of steel and have a diameter of up to one and a half meters. Distributing heat pipes are made not only of steel, but also of special plastic, roughly speaking. Today we will not delve into the intricacies of chemical production; this does not matter to us for now. Distribution pipes can be of different diameters - mostly up to 15 cm.

The depth of the heating main is higher than that of the water supply. Sometimes the floor slab actually comes out, matching the surface - so that you can walk on it like an excellent concrete road. Have you seen such paths?.. There are still a lot of hatches on them, which are always getting tangled under your feet.

In certain places, heat pipes come to the surface and run above the ground (mostly without a channel). In common parlance, such a heating main is called “air”. Then she can re-enter the ground.

*Scheme of operation of the central heating station

So now we can move on to this. We said that heated water from the heat input pipes enters the central heating station. And then what happens?..

Let's consider the classic scheme.

Central heating points are needed in order to implement the mechanism of operation of two main thermal circuits:

Hot water circuit
- heating circuit

Let's first look at the mechanism of the hot water circuit.

Inside the central heating point, hot water from the supply heat pipe passes through special devices - hot water heat exchangers, of which there are usually two:

Heat exchanger of the second heating stage
- heat exchanger of the first heating stage

Water taken from the supply heat pipe first enters the heat exchanger of the second heating stage, to which it transfers its heat. This heat is used to heat the water that constantly circulates through this heat exchanger along the hot water supply circuit - from the central heating point to our taps and back.

But where does water come from into the hot water supply circuit?.. From a cold water supply pipe - that is, from a regular water supply. But before entering this circuit, cold water passes through the heat exchanger of the first heating stage, where it is heated to a certain temperature and then sent to the hot water supply circuit.

That is, the role of the first stage heat exchanger is to heat cold tap water, and the role of the second stage heat exchanger is to constantly heat preheated water circulating along the hot water supply circuit. Heating and heating, as you understand, are two different things. Therefore, we must definitely distinguish between them.

And we must also remember that water from the supply heat pipe first passes through the second-stage heat exchanger, and then through the first-stage heat exchanger. This circulation path seems a little counterintuitive, but it only seems so.

Hot water, which has given up its heat to the hot water supply heat exchangers, returns to the heating network, but to the second pipe. And we have already said that two heat pipes approach the central heating station - supply and return. So, the “return” is precisely intended for transporting waste water in the opposite direction - to the thermal power plant.

This is an indirect hot water supply scheme. But there is also direct hot water supply, when hot water enters our tap directly from the supply heat pipe, bypassing the heat exchange mechanism. Direct water intake is practiced in old low houses.

Okay, so hot water appears in our tap, which circulates in a circle - from the central heating point to the houses and back. What about hot water in radiators?.. It’s a little more complicated here.

Hot water from the supply pipe also passes through another heat exchanger - the heat exchanger of the heating system - gives off heat to it and goes into the “return”. Through this heat exchanger, other hot water continuously (in winter) circulates along an independent circuit (from the central heating point to the batteries in our houses and back), which is heated by this heat exchanger to a certain temperature. The independent water heating circuit is constantly replenished with hot water taken from the same supply pipe using a special feed pump. Such replenishment is necessary precisely because in the process of circulating hot water through the heating system, some of it is lost.

That is, we see the following diagram. The hot water in the tap is mainly cold tap water heated in heat exchangers. Hot water in the radiators is a circuit whose water, circulating in a circle, constantly passes through another heat exchanger (heat exchanger of the heating system) and is heated in it; and this circuit is fed with water from the supply heat pipe. That is, cold tap water has nothing to do with a hot battery.

Is it difficult to understand?.. In fact, everything here is very simple. Over time, everything will become clearer in the mind and settle down.

This, in fact, is the great role of heating mains and, in particular, heat pipes.

DOMESTIC SEWAGE

The domestic sewer system, where we discharge our waste, can be called a water supply “return”. We have already mentioned this. But if the water in the water pipe fills its entire space, since it is under pressure, then the sewer water flows inside the pipe in a stream (up to the first pump station), leaving free space in the pipe.

The sewage system starts from the drain hole in the kitchen sink, in the sink, in the bathroom, in the toilet. These holes are the starting points of the entire sewer network of the city. Whatever we throw in there, whatever kind of water we don’t drain there... That’s why the sewage system often gets clogged and overgrown with grease. In a word, sewerage is the dirtiest underground utility service.

So, dirty water, having entered the drain hole, passes through the sewer “interior” of the house and exits into the yard sewer pipes, which connect to the inter-block sewer pipes.

From the last pipes, dirty water, having become even more polluted, enters the city sewer gravity collectors - into fairly wide pipes designed for gravitational transportation of water to sewer pumping stations. Water makes this entire path - from the drain hole to the first pumping station - on its own, by gravity, that is, it flows relatively slowly under the influence of gravity, since all sewer pipes to the first pumping station have a certain slope.

A pressure sewer collector departs from the pumping station, through which water flows under pressure (under pressure) at a relatively high speed. Water is transported through the pressure sewer collector from the pumping station further either to another pumping station, or directly to treatment facilities, in which the water is completely purified and sent to the nearest natural watercourse.

That's the entire sewer system.

The entire sewer network, as well as the water supply network, can be divided into three orders:

1. First order network - yard sewerage

2. Second-order network - inter-block sewerage (“initial” collectors)

3. Third-order network - free-flow and pressure collectors running
directly to the KNS and from the KNS

Sewer pipes, of course, like all other pipes, are made of both metal and plastic. The last option is the most durable, since in general the sewer environment is very aggressive. Often, ground failures occur exactly where sewer lines lie.

RAIN Drainage (GUTTER or STORM DRAIN)

Storm drainage is otherwise called storm drainage or drainage (storm drain). This is a less significant type of sewer in social terms, but imagine if it didn't exist at all. Showers and melting snow would constantly flood our streets, and with them the basements of houses, thereby causing great inconvenience.

So, most of the excess water entering the city streets from the atmosphere in the form of rain and melted snow (and in some cases, during river floods) ends up in the storm drainage system. But how?.. Through the gratings of drainage wells (more about wells later). Such wells in the general drainage network are designed to receive city water and are therefore often called receiving wells.

Not all excess city street water, of course, goes into the drainage network. Some of it, of course, evaporates from the streets, the other part seeps into the ground.

We all know that rain, for example, knocks not only on asphalt, but also on roofs. We heard this in songs, right?.. To drain water from roofs, a special drainage system is provided, consisting of receiving trays (gutters), funnels and drain pipes. Water falling on the roof of a building flows down it into receiving trays (gutters) located along the contour of the roof. From the trays, water flows into special funnels, and from them into house drainpipes extending down from the trays (towards the ground). Drainpipes can be located both outside the building (along the facade) and inside. From these pipes, water is poured either directly onto the asphalt (which is extremely bad), or into a tray on the asphalt of the sidewalk road (which is much more civilized) - into the so-called storm drain gutter, which should be covered with a grill on top so as not to create inconvenience for pedestrians and drivers . Water flows out of the asphalt tray over the curb (curb, if you will) and onto the roadway.

These gutters (on roofs) and storm drains (on roads) are U-shaped (that is, open at the top) pipes that can be made from a variety of materials. The easiest way to make such a tray is to cut the pipe in half lengthwise (i.e. along the length).

So, some part of the rainwater flowing through the streets in certain depressions of the relief ends up in a receiving well. In the well, water rises to the level of the outlet pipe (which is usually placed high) and is poured into it. The diameter of the drainage pipe is much larger than the diameter of the domestic sewer pipe. This width is set for a reason: along with the water, a large amount of street garbage - sand, gasoline, dust, leaves, branches, pebbles, bags, bottles, cigarette butts and other street attributes - gets into the well and then into the pipe. In order for all this mass to move through the pipe, a large diameter is required.

Then the water, mixed with street garbage, also moves under the influence of gravity (along the slope) and ultimately ends up in a drainage collector, which leads the water into the river. Often, water flowing through the drainage network does not pass through any treatment facilities, but is discharged straight into the nearest watercourse. At the final exit, they simply install an ordinary metal grate, which partially retains large-scale street sewage, and supposedly clean water successfully replenishes the rivers of our cities, polluting them even more.

In general, the technical condition of the drainage system in provincial cities, of course, leaves much to be desired, since it is also often heavily littered and therefore does not fully fulfill its role. During a heavy rainfall, water only fills the well, but naturally does not get into the pipe clogged with dirt.

In the private sector, the drainage system is a network of drainage ditches (artificially created potholes) of varying depths and widths, constructed along roads. Ideally, the water in such ditches should move along a slope, but even if there is none, then in any case these channels still serve as drainage, because all the “excess” water from the surrounding area accumulates in them. Sometimes domestic sewage water is deliberately discharged into such ditches, which is very harmful to the environment, of course. Any private sector must be equipped with a domestic sewerage network. At worst, you can build your own cesspool.

Comparative characteristics of drainage and domestic sewerage

It must be said that the operation scheme of storm drainage sewerage is similar to the operation scheme of domestic sewerage. A significant difference is observed only in the diameter of the pipes. Let me remind you: storm drain pipes are much wider than sanitary sewer pipes. As for the luxurious collectors they build on the drainage network, I’m generally silent about that. In metropolitan cities, such collectors are entire tunnels - wide, with high brick or stone arches - along the bottom of which a stream flows. And in provincial cities, it must be said, drainage collectors have very wide pipelines.

As for the comparative cleanliness of the two networks - drainage and sewerage itself - here too they are generally the same. It cannot be said that the water in the drainage is cleaner than the water in the sewer, because the street is the main breeding ground for bacteria. And taking care of the cleanliness of drainage water at the final outlet is a priority task today.

Illegal tapping of drainage pipes into sewer pipes is very common. And vice versa. Ideally, these networks should not intersect, that is, drainage water cannot enter the sewer network, and sewage water cannot enter the drainage network. Typically, such illegal tappings are made in wells. Have you ever noticed: you look into a sewage well, and in it, in addition to the typical tray at the bottom, there is also a wide drainage pipe located above the tray?.. Pay attention. But such sidebars are not everything. It also happens that rain and melt water is directly drained into a sewer pipe - a cover with holes (grid) is installed on the sewer well, into which street water is poured.

It is the insertion of drainage into the sewer system that is a frequent cause of flooding of the sewer pumping station with water of rain origin during seasonal downpours.

Sometimes in one well you can observe several communications at once - water supply, and hydraulic system, and stormwater (or just drainage), and sewerage...

Now regarding the depth of the drainage system. As a rule, drainage is always located above the domestic sewer. Has anyone looked into a purely drainage well? These wells are very shallow, the cut pipe in it is literally visible to the naked eye. And the sewer pipe and tray must be examined with a flashlight. If you're lucky, you won't have to climb into the well. But this applies for the most part to domestic sewage collector wells. And the yard decks of the same network are as shallow as the drainage ones.

Just like domestic sewerage, the drainage network is divided into orders:

1. First-order network - intra-block drainage (often outlines buildings)

2. Second-order network - inter-block drainage (wider pipes)

3. Third-order network - drainage collectors

Like household sewerage, storm drainage is a channelless utility line (the pipe is laid directly in the ground).

Well, one last thing. We have already talked about this. Water from the domestic sewer network must be treated before entering the reservoir. The drainage network in this regard remains largely undeveloped to this day. True, recently modern filters have been installed directly in the drainage pipe. This, of course, minimizes the risk of dirty wastewater entering rivers. But let us repeat: ideally, all drainage water, even that which has passed through these new filters, should be sent to treatment facilities. So far, such a scheme has not been adequately developed in provincial cities.

GROUND SEWERAGE (PASSED DRAINAGE)

To prevent the heating main from being periodically flooded with groundwater, the so-called associated drainage is built on its sides, which is a relatively wide drainage pipe into which groundwater is poured, thereby draining the soil around the heating main. This is necessary in order to protect the heating main from the harmful effects of excess moisture, since it accelerates the destructive processes of the elements of thermal communications. Of course, all seams are sealed at the joints of trays and floor slabs (or upper covering trays), but water is a substance that will penetrate anywhere and dissolve everything that gets in its way. Especially the “vulnerable” heating main.

How does water get into these pipes?.. It's simple. The most common method is transverse cuts in the pipe, into which groundwater is poured, then flowing according to the slope of the pipe.

The final output of associated drainage is the storm sewer network. This is where groundwater ultimately ends up. Thus, if we combine the associated and storm drainage into one whole, we will get a single powerful drainage network of the city. Sometimes grates (for rainwater seepage) are also placed on wells for associated drainage. And there is nothing so terrible about this, because building a separate (independent) system for discharging groundwater into rivers is a labor-intensive and expensive task. Yes, and this makes no sense. This requires building separate treatment facilities, searching for and laying new paths, and thereby creating an even greater load on the geological foundation of the city, which is already barely holding together.

There are two types of associated drainage:

1. One-sided

2. Double sided

One-way associated drainage is one drainage pipe running from one side of the heating main. Bilateral associated drainage consists of two pipes, one of which runs along the heating main on one side, and the other on the opposite side.

Double-sided drainage is constructed where there is a large accumulation of groundwater - where one-way drainage does not cope with its task.

Associated drainage is also a channelless utility service.

CONSTRUCTION OF NETWORKS

The elements of underground engineering communications are not only the conductors of matter and energy themselves (pipes or cables) and the channels in which they are located, but also special structures built in order to have access to communications. Access is required for several reasons:

For inspection and assessment of technical condition

For cleaning pipelines

To repair communications

In order to be able to control the state of movement of the substance and
energy

All of the above can be carried out in wells (in particular, in chambers), points and stations.

WELLS

Wells are the most common structures on networks. A well is a shaft of varying depth, consisting of a base, a working chamber, a floor slab (PP), a neck and an upper head part - a hatch.

STRUCTURE OF WELLS

Working chamber

The working chamber of the well is built of reinforced concrete rings (or brickwork - from the base to the hatch). A ladder is often installed in the working chamber for comfortable descent to the bottom of the well.

If the well is constructed of wide rings, then they are closed from above with a floor slab (PP) with a hole for the hatch, on which the hatch is installed. But if the working chamber of the well is narrow (the width of the rings is small), then instead of the floor slab, a narrowing reinforced concrete additional ring (DC) is installed on top, on which the hatch is installed.

If the well is made entirely of brickwork, then the hatch can be installed either on the additional ring (located on top) or directly on the top row of bricks. The floor slab is not used.

The well (and the chamber in particular) may also have a so-called neck. The neck is the brickwork at the top of the well. It is installed on the floor slab (if it is low) - also in order to be able to install a hatch. Let's say the lower part of the well is built from wide rings, on the last ring rests a floor slab with a hole, and from this hole to the earth's surface there is a relatively narrow brick neck on which a hatch is mounted (also with or without an additional ring).

Hatches and hatch covers

The hatch is the top of the well. Hatches can be:

Cast iron
- plastic
- reinforced concrete (reinforced concrete)

The cast iron and plastic hatch is composed of:

Hatch bodies (shells)

Manhole covers (CL)

The reinforced concrete hatch is made up of a reinforced concrete ring and a reinforced concrete cover. But we know that there are also wooden hatches, right?.. An active carpenter will make a completely even circle from boards and independently close the open well in the yard. In general, a well without a cover is a serious malfunction, since it poses a threat to the life and health of the city’s population, especially for children. This is good if the well is shallow, but if it is several meters deep. We all need to watch our step, especially on a dark evening. And after the feast you need to go accompanied by a less cheerful person.

Manhole covers in plan may have the following shape:

Round (most common)
- rectangular
- square
- triangular
- oval
- complex

In a vertical profile, the shape of the manhole cover can be:

Flat
- convex
- concave (the worst option)

Based on the number of ears there are:

A) earless covers
b) 1-eared (with one large ear)
c) two-eared
d) 3-eared
d) 4-eared
f) many-eared (often such covers can be found on GTS wells)

The ears are needed in order, firstly, to firmly secure the manhole cover in the grooves of the shell (body), and secondly, so that maintenance personnel can, without any problems, especially in winter, open the well with a hook for subsequent inspection. Although in severe frosts the hatch cover freezes so tightly to the shell that it takes half an hour to tear it off.

Accordingly, the hatch body can be:

Without recesses (grooves)
- with one notch
- with two notches
- etc.

Based on the degree of relief of the outer surface of the cover, we can distinguish:

Smooth lids (not common)
- embossed lids (including patterned ones)

According to water throughput, all covers are divided into two types:

1 - water-permeable covers, or rainwater “grids” (must be installed
only on receiving drainage wells)
2 - waterproof covers (must be installed on all other wells)

The marking of manhole covers is regulated, but often the letter designation on the outside of the cover does NOT match the type of underground utility. For example, you can often see a sewer cover on water mains and vice versa.

There are the following main markings (letter designations):

"B" - water supply network

"K" - sewer network

"TS" - heating network

“D” – drainage network

“L” - storm drainage network

"GTS" - telephone network

The manhole covers of gas pipeline wells are painted, firstly, red (less often yellow), and secondly, in many cases they are convex or have a large thickness. By these characteristics, gas wells are clearly distinguishable from wells of other networks.

Well hatches vary in weight. The lightest (plastic) hatches are installed in green zones, and the heaviest ones are installed on the roadway, since the load on the road is much greater than in the green zone, where, sometimes, a civilized person has not set foot for decades. Reinforced concrete covers are not installed on roadways, since in these places the manhole cover must also be flush with the asphalt surface.

Condition of the hatch relative to the ground surface

There are two fundamental concepts:

Excessive condition of the hatch
- low condition of the hatch

But undervalued or undervalued condition is usually considered relative to something. What exactly?.. That's right, regarding the earth's surface.

In green areas, it is allowed (and moreover, recommended) to increase the level of the hatch, that is, raise it to a certain height above the ground surface. There are also wells in the green zone, in which the upper ring of the working chamber extends almost completely to the surface. There is a floor slab on top and a hatch crowns all this “splendor”. Well, that happens.

So, deliberate overestimation of the well is allowed and permitted only in green areas. On the roadway, the outer surface of the cover must lie in the same plane with the road surface. On sidewalks and internal roads, the same location of the hatch is provided, but often we see a different picture. The hatch “bulges out”, poor passers-by stumble over it in the dark, and cars are forced to avoid this obstacle whenever possible.

But lowering the hatch, even in green areas, is a serious shortcoming in the work. It also happens that the hatch lowers itself over time. This may indicate that the upper part of the brickwork (including the neck) under the hatch is partially destroyed or that there is some kind of defect in the floor slab, as well as in the additional ring.

Classification of wells

A well in plan may have:

Round shape (most common)
- polygonal

Wells are installed in places where:

The direction of communication changes sharply (rotary wells)
- the depth of its occurrence changes sharply (difference wells)
- there is a connection of several pipes (of relatively small diameter) into one
relatively wide pipe - (nodal wells)
- there is an intersection of several pipes of the same communication at different levels
- there is a connection of two pipes (branch) - insert

Wells are also constructed on straight (in horizontal and vertical profile) sections of communications at a certain distance - in those places where there is a pipe connection. The larger the diameter of the pipe, the greater the distance between the wells. Such wells installed in a straight line are called linear.

Depending on which networks the wells belong to, they are divided into:

Water supply (mark on the walls of buildings and poles - VK)
- thermal chambers (mark – TK)
- sewer (mark – KK or GK)
- storm drainage (mark – LC)
- soil-drainage (passing drainage) - often without a mark or with a DK mark
- gas wells
- wells of the urban telephone network (city telephone network), or communication wells (often marked -
Tel.)

As a rule, wells are not installed on underground electrical networks.

Water wells

Water wells can be divided into:

Water wells (on water pipelines)
- the actual water supply wells (on the networks of inter-block and yard
water supply)

Fire hydrants (marked PG) are installed in water supply wells in straight sections, designed to draw water from a water pipe for the purpose of mobile fire extinguishing. The fire hydrant is located vertically in the well. In Western countries, they are accustomed to bringing hydrants to the surface.

Water taps are also installed on water supply networks in the private sector.

Wide wells on water conduits are called water chambers. They can be round or polygonal in shape. To access such a chamber, not one hatch can be used, as in a “simple” well, but several.

Thermal wells (chambers)

Thermal wells have a polygonal shape and are large in size and are therefore called chambers. The thermal chamber, as a rule, has several hatches for access to heat pipes and fittings (valves, etc.) - from two to six. But there are also small chambers with one hatch.

On air heat routes, the chamber is built on the surface and is a booth (mostly brick) of various sizes (depending on the size of the pipes).

Sewage wells

In the sewer well, the pipe is cut and a tray is installed in place of the cut.

All sewer wells can be divided into:

Gravity-collector
- pressure-collector
- wells of the inter-block network
- yard wells (in places where sewage water is discharged from houses)

All collector wells are quite deep, and in order to inspect the condition of their bottom, maintenance personnel have to climb down there with a flashlight. In such an event, it must be said, there is little pleasant. You must always remember that there are much fewer wells on pressure collectors than on gravity ones.

Storm drainage

All wells belonging to this network are most conveniently divided into:

Receptionists

Observation

The receiving well is intended primarily to receive rainwater. The manhole cover of such a well is a grid with holes of various shapes - round, longitudinal, figured. Rain or melt water is poured into these holes.

The inspection drainage well is closed with a regular waterproof cover and is NOT intended for receiving water.

Associated drainage wells

These wells legally belong to heating networks, but objectively belong to the general drainage network of the city and are practically no different from storm drainage, and some of them are also used as receiving wells.

Gas wells

It should be noted that there are quite a few wells that are built on gas networks compared to the number of wells in other networks. In addition to this fact, recently there has been a tendency to dismantle gas wells.

Carpets are also installed on the gas network - metal cylinders of red or (much less often) yellow with a lid. In green areas, the carpet cylinder may be raised above the ground surface. On sidewalks and roadways, the carpet cylinder is located entirely inside the soil and road surface, and only the upper plane of the cover comes to the surface. Opposite the carpet, on the nearest wall or pillar, a special yellow plate is drawn, which indicates the footage and other information.

As a child, everyone probably loved to hide something in the carpet. Yes, only in our case in the word “carpet” the stress falls on the first syllable, and not on the second.

GTS wells

These wells have the most elegant hatches, it should be noted. Moreover, there are hatches of various shapes - for example, in the form of an oval cut off at the edges. And, interestingly, on the manhole cover of such wells there is always the inscription “GTS” or “TELEPHONE”. And therefore they are very easy to distinguish from wells belonging to other communications.

GTS wells are quite shallow. Under the hatch there is almost always a lid with a handle. In the well we see a cut pipe (channel) and slightly sagging cables.

Dead-end drainage wells*

Often, non-drainable wells (water wells, hydraulic structures) are used unauthorizedly for the so-called dead-end drainage of street water. There may be two options here:

Straight dead-end drain

Indirect dead-end drain

In the first case, a drainage cover is installed on one or another impassable well, designed to receive street water. And the water flows into the well in a direct way.

In the second case, water is poured into a water supply or telephone well from a drainage pipe and, of course, does not go further. Active craftsmen “secretly” insert one pipe (usually a wide one) into the well, and water from the streets is poured through it into the well and remains there until it evaporates and/or seeps into the ground.

We already know that not only water supply and telephone wells are used for unauthorized drainage. Any well can be “perforated” and a pipe can be placed into it. If this is a sewer, then there is no dead end as such - the water will still go into the sewer pipe. But in this case, there is a danger of overloading the domestic sewer network with excess (alien) water and excess garbage.

This illegal practice is mainly common in places where the storm drainage network was not initially provided.

POINTS AND STATIONS

Among the points we can highlight the following structures on the networks:

Central heating point (CHP) – on heating networks
- gas control point (GRP; GRPS) - on gas networks

Among the stations are:

Water intake station – on water supply networks
- sewage pumping station (SPS) – on sewer networks
- drainage pumping station (DPS) – on drainage networks (for drainage of soil
water)
- transformer substation (TS) – on electrical networks
- telephone exchange (TS) – on city telephone networks

LAYING UNDERGROUND ENGINEERING COMMUNICATIONS

Pipe laying can be done in two ways:

1. Open method

2. Closed method

The open method is, one might say, a classic of the genre. A pipe, or first a channel, and then pipes, is lowered into a pre-dug trench. The depth of the trench depends on the functional type of underground communication. This method is good where the trench will not disrupt the integrity of the road surface and the stationary nature of urban development elements - that is, in empty green areas.

The closed method is a late invention. In another way it is called the “puncture method”. A conductor of substance or energy (pipe or cable) is pulled into the ground in a certain way, which avoids violating the integrity of the road surface and the stationary nature of urban development elements.

IMAGE OF UNDERGROUND COMMUNICATIONS AND STRUCTURES ON THEM

Underground communications are depicted on special maps (filming). Each communication on the shoot is shown as a line (with all turns) of a certain color: for example, water supply is mostly blue, and sewerage is mostly brown. The hatches in the shooting are depicted as rounded dots of various sizes; cameras, points and stations - in the form of squares, triangles or rectangles of various sizes (KNS - often in the form of a circle).

The place where communication lines of different types intersect is called an intersection. But we must keep in mind that we are talking about an intersection in a horizontal profile. If we consider the vertical profile, then all communications naturally lie at a certain distance from each other - each communication is at its own depth.

CONCLUSION

How quickly time flies... Unfortunately, we did not have time to study in more detail gas communications, underground electrical cable lines and underground cable communication lines. Well, therefore, you will study these topics on your own, at home over a cup of Brazilian coffee from the Moscow region.

If I forgot to say something or got confused in some way - sorry, grandfather has become very old, but not very adequate, and my head, excuse me, no longer works the same way as 45 years ago, when I was still a simple, beardless teacher and was just starting my career. At that time, by the way, all my truant students received failing grades. And now it’s the other way around: less people means more oxygen. Why do I speak so poorly of myself?.. Because the university is a place where students practically study this or that material on their own, and we, teachers, only push you, guide and support you, of course, not without this. Therefore, you will have to study all the other technical nuances not covered in this lecture yourself. And during the exam, I will then ask you a simple question: how does the concept of “external diameter of a pipe” differ from the concept of “internal diameter of a pipe”. Whoever answers will go home with an A.

And besides, it is impossible to cover all the nuances associated with such a large-scale topic in one lecture. For a more detailed analysis, it is necessary to devote at least a separate lecture to each engineering communication. And, at the most, a course of lectures. Because even such seemingly simple concepts as “pipe” or “well” require fairly scrupulous study.

Let's think about this better. Can a person live without utilities at all?.. I can answer my own question in the affirmative: maybe. Very much. I checked it on myself. Instead of running water, you can use an ordinary village well. Water from a well cures all diseases, water from a tap - rather the opposite. Instead of today's gas or electric stove, a Russian stove has been used in Rus' since time immemorial. The stove is a magnificent invention; a better one has not yet been invented. The most delicious and digestible food comes from the oven. And baked milk from it is something unforgettable. A clay jug, a brown film on top, an aroma throughout the whole hut... The milk simmers for 7-8 hours - and you can drink it.

In addition, the Russian stove plays the role of a heating element, so in rural areas batteries and heating mains are completely unnecessary. And if someone has the opportunity to equip a classic fireplace in the living room, then... In a word, the stove and fireplace replace a lot in our lives. And they replace it in a more complete way.

What can you replace an electric light bulb with?.. A big candle, of course. What else?.. As it is sung in one unobtrusive song, “I wish I could put a candle on the table, I should put a candle on the table, as it was once upon a time.”

The sewage system in the village is a wooden “dry toilet”. A very romantic invention. You especially feel this romance when you go out into the yard on a warm, starry summer night... dogs bark in the distance, frogs purr mysteriously on the pond...

Telephone, TV, Internet are categories of life that can also be replaced. Well, never mind, we used to live without this newfangled luxury, and life was much more interesting than it is now. Everything was in short supply, everything was forbidden, life seemed like an endless mystery. We read exciting books and interesting newspapers, solved crossword puzzles, played guitars and button accordions, sent each other real letters in stamped envelopes, went to dances and the circus - and were happy. This is what I wish for all young people entering adulthood in the 21st century.

A certain abstract on the topic “Surveying of underground structures” (shooting not photos, but topographic surveys) - the full text is there.

Engineering communications are linear structures with technological
devices on them intended for transporting liquids,
gases and energy transfer. They can be divided into two groups: underground and
overhead communications. They are also called as synonyms
engineering networks, and individual communications - routes or laying.

Underground utilities consist of pipelines, cables
lines and collectors.

The nature of the arrangement of the area where utilities are laid,
largely determines the features of their placement and technological connections.

The territories of modern cities are saturated with a system of engineering
communications laid primarily below the surface of the earth.
The placement of city utilities is determined by the size and
configuration of the city territory, density and number of floors of buildings,
level of development of municipal services of the city (village).

The underground space of the city is most fully used within
areas of city streets. Here is the placement of underground engineering
communications were carried out at predominantly minimal distances and
plan between individual gaskets, as well as between them and buildings,
structures, roads, etc.
combined laying of underground communications in collectors. Especially
dense distribution of communications is typical for central streets and
areas.

In undeveloped areas, engineering communications are provided
separate main pipelines, aboveground and underground
power and communication lines. At the same time, the location and purpose
main communications in most cases are determined
identification posts.

There are executive surveys of communications and surveys of existing communications.
communications. As-built survey of utilities is being carried out
during and after construction, but before backfilling the underground trenches
ground engineering communications.

As-built survey of utilities contains the following types
works:

Preparatory;

Creation of a plan-height surveying geodetic network (justification):

Plan-height survey of engineering communications elements with measurements
structures on them.

In addition to the listed types of work during executive shooting in
survey of existing utilities includes
reconnaissance and inspection of utility structures, and
also finding the location of hidden underground networks.

Upon completion of field work, a complex of computational,
graphic and mapping works. Upon completion of the field and
office work, a technical report is drawn up (explanatory
note), which shows the actually completed composition and volume of work,
technological features of filming in this area, characteristics
accuracy of the received plans or as-built drawings.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT UNDERGROUND COMMUNICATIONS

Underground communications include such laying in the ground as
pipelines, cable networks, collectors.

Pipelines are networks of water supply, sewerage, gas supply,
district heating, drainage, drainage, oil and gas pipelines and others
gaskets designed for transporting various contents
through pipes.

Cable networks transmit electricity. They vary in voltage and
purpose: high voltage networks, electrified transport,
street lighting; weak networks (telephone, radio and
television). Networks consist of cables laid at a depth of up to 1
m, transformer distribution cabinets.

). They simultaneously lay pipelines and cables of various
appointments.

The water supply provides drinking, household, water and
fire needs and consists of water supply stations and water distribution
networks. The water distribution network is divided into main and distribution.
The main network (pipe diameters 400 - 900 mm) provides water to entire
areas, and the distribution network extending from it supplies water to houses and
industrial enterprises. The pipes of this network have a diameter of 200 - 400 mm,
inputs to houses - 50 mm. To regulate the operation of water supply networks in
They install fittings - valves, outlets, taps, etc. For access
wells are installed to the fittings.

Sewerage ensures the removal of waste and contaminated water to treatment plants
structures and further into the nearest bodies of water. The sewer network consists of
cast iron and reinforced concrete pipes, inspection and differential wells, stations
pumping for low-lying parts of buildings and other structures. Diameters
pipes range from 150 to 400 mm.

Gutters drain rain and melt water, as well as conventionally drained water
(from washing and watering streets). The drainage network consists of pipes
rainwater and drop-off wells, discharges into reservoirs and ravines. TO
drainpipes of buildings are connected to drainage wells. For
drainage network uses asbestos-cement and reinforced concrete pipes with a diameter
up to 3.5 m.

Drains are used to collect groundwater. They consist of
perforated concrete, ceramic, asbestos-cement pipes with a diameter of up to
200 mm.

Gas pipelines are used to transport gas. They are divided into
main (steel pipe diameter up to 1600 mm) and distribution.
Gas pipelines run from stations and storage facilities to development areas along driveways.
Entrances to buildings and structures extend from them. Laying depth from
the surface of these networks is 0.8-1.2 m. Shut-off valves are installed on gas pipelines
taps, condensate collectors, sniffing tubes, pressure regulators, etc.

Heat supply networks provide heat and hot water to residential,
public and industrial buildings. Heat supply can be local (from
individual boiler houses) and centralized (from combined heat and power plants),
water and steam. Heat is supplied through direct supply pipes (temperature
120-150 °C), returned to the source through return pipes
(temperature 40 - 70 °C). Heat supply networks consist of metal
insulated pipes; valves placed in chambers; air and
drain valves, condensation devices, compensators. Pipe diameter
reaches 400 mm. They are laid underground in reinforced concrete samples, and
In case of massive dense development, pipes lead directly through the basements of buildings.

For the design, construction, improvement and operation of cities and towns, it is necessary to have accurate information about the location of underground communications within the development boundaries. Such information is contained in topographic plans of various scales. Plans at a scale of 1: 5000 are used as overview plans to develop a general layout of main communications Plans of larger scales (1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500) serve as the basis for placing data on existing and planned communications.

Underground communications and structures include such groups of laying in the ground as pipelines, cable networks, collectors, and tunnels.

Pipelines are networks\water supply, sewerage, gas supply, district heating, drainage of steam, oil, gas pipelines and other installations intended*\E(Dy tranetKurtirovaZhshch^^^^, personal contents through pipes.\ *("ъ"

Cable networks are electrical networks of various types "L)"„ L ^&ІП^мь|№ ^ and destinations, telephone, telegraph, r\2schz^

Cable networks transmit electricity?^tsY^)^^^^oY «nr high voltage, street lighting, d^^^t^^idyrevyn^^^^sh transport and low current. . - 1-, -h^4s"e1>S-, * *

Networks consist of cables, distribution and transformers. Cable laying ^yu^-d^yte yo Ts^^?^^1^^^ sand and then covered with bricks, in the sewer collector, inspection wells are installed in asbestos-cement, ceramic blocks - **^ cable bending..^ ^„"

Cables for various purposes are laid in collectors, in small “tunnels” - as a rule, only cables, in large ones - transport roads (metro, railways and roads), water pipelines.

Collectors are rectangular or square boxes of one- or two-cell type with a height of 1800 to 3000 mm, a width of 14,000 ... 3000 mm, and a wall thickness of 50 ... 200 mm. The depth of the collectors from the surface is 0.5 m and below, L

Water pipelines provide drinking, household, "pr^Shchz- "" water and fire needs and consist of water supply<уга% ций и сетей. К водопроводной станции относятся воДозаборй"ые*"" устройства: водоприемник, береговые колодцы, всасывающие тру­бопроводы, подающие воду к водоподъемным станциям; водораз-водящая магистральная сеть обеспечивает водой районы (диаметр труб 400-900 мм). От магистральной сети отходит распредели­тельная, которая подает воду к домам и промышленным предпри­ятиям. Она располагается по обеим сторонам улиц, внутри квар­талов и микрорайонов. Трубы этой сети имеют диаметр от 200 до 400 мм. От распределительной сети отходят вводы (диаметр 50 мм), по которым вода поступает к потребителям.

To turn off and on sections, regulate work, and protect against accidents, fittings are installed on water supply networks - valves, plungers, outlets, fire and irrigation valves. Wells are installed at the location of the fittings in order to have access to the fittings.

Sewerage It is ensured that waste and polluted water is removed to treatment facilities, and surface atmospheric water is removed to nearby water bodies. Depending on the purpose, sewerage can be combined, separate and semi-separate. All waste water is removed by a common sewer system; separate - household and industrial in one pipe, and storm water in another; semi-separate - alternately one and the other water depending on the volume.

The network consists of pipes, pumping stations, manholes, siphons and other devices. Pipe diameters from 150 to 400 mm.

Pumping stations are installed when it is impossible to drain water from low-lying parts of the building. Drains (pipes curved in a vertical plane) carry sewage through ravines, rivers and/or other obstacles.

Gas pipelines, serve/for gas transportation. They are divided into main ones (pipe diameter up to 1600 mm) and distribution ones. Gas pipelines run from stations and storage facilities to residential areas/and along the streets. Entrances to buildings and structures extend from them. Gas pipelines are divided into categories depending on pressure. The installation depth from the surface of these networks is 0.8-1.2 m. Shut-off valves, condensate collectors, sniffing tubes, pressure regulators, gas control points and installations are installed on gas pipelines.

Heating networks provide heat and hot water to residential, public and industrial buildings. Heat supply can be local (from individual boiler houses) and centralized (from combined heat and power plants), water and steam. Heat is supplied through direct supply pipes (temperature / = 120 ... 150 ° C), and returned to the source through return pipes ( / = 40 ... 70 ° C). Heat supply networks consist of pipes, valves placed in chambers, air and drain valves, condensation devices, and compensators. The diameter of the pipes reaches 400 mm. They are laid in reinforced concrete boxes - channels underground or on the surface; supports, pillars, less often channelless installation is used, and in case of massive dense buildings, pipes go directly through the basements of buildings. To cross obstacles, overpasses or siphons are built, and if there are bridges, pipes are attached to the lower parts of the structures.

Gutters drain rain and melt water, as well as relatively clean water (from washing and watering streets, etc.). The network consists of pipes, rainwater inlets, inspection and drop-off wells and outlets into reservoirs or ravines. Drains are open, closed and mixed. Open drains (ditches, ditches, drainage ditches) drain water over the surface, closed drains - through pipes and collectors. Mixed drains contain both elements of networks. Drainpipes from buildings are connected to drainpipes. For the drainage network, asbestos-cement and reinforced concrete pipes with a diameter of up to 3.5 m are used.

Drains used for lowering groundwater. Drains can be vertical and horizontal. Using vertical drainage, a system of boreholes or wells lowers water by 10 m or more. Pumps are installed above the wells to remove water by pumping. Horizontal drainage consists of concrete, ceramic, asbestos-cement pipes with a diameter of up to 0.2 m. Gallery drainage has also been preserved - wooden, brick, stone or concrete boxes into which water flows down trays.

§ 32. Shooting and making plans

The position of underground communications and structures on the ground is determined from the geodetic basis, which is used as points of theodolite and polygonal traverses, red lines or other building regulation lines. In addition, solid contour points are used in the form of plan and elevation bases. They are chosen on permanent buildings, permanent fences, poles and other structures that are not subject to demolition and are not subject to destruction. It is convenient to use as justification the centers of well covers located on sidewalks and in the immediate vicinity of curb stones. The points are selected in such a way that there is mutual visibility between them, and the distance does not exceed 300 m.

When using well covers, a hole with a diameter of 2 mm and a depth of 5 mm is drilled in the shell of such a cover and caulked with copper or aluminum wire. If permanent buildings are used as justification, then the points are selected at a height of more than 1 m from the ground surface or at the height level of the installed geodetic instrument. But in all cases, these points must be higher than the base of the building. If the building is long and it is far from the corners to communications or structures, then do this. A certain distance is measured from the corner of the building to its middle along the wall and a point located on the plane of the wall is used as a starting point.

You can also use a continuation of the alignment of an existing building. To do this, you should move away from the building and, focusing on the alignment by eye, set a milestone. The opening outside the building is chosen to be no more than half the length of the building, but in all cases it should not be more than 60 m.

If a round pillar is used as a base, then first measure its circumference and calculate the radius. Measurements are taken from the outer plane, and the center of the column is taken as the base point. This is done in order to use the same pole to measure from it in different directions.

When laying communication routes and constructing underground structures, a temporary high-altitude geodetic base is created in an undeveloped area in the form of ground benchmarks - wooden pillars or sections of rails and pipes. Their penetration into the ground is no more than 0.5 m, the distance between them is up to 200 m. Benchmarks are located outside the alignment of the route and excavation works. The distance between the benchmarks is dictated by the length of the sighting beam and the need to see the benchmark from each station. This is convenient for long-term work from one station or breaks in construction work.

When laying is carried out in built-up areas, the height justification is provided by pencil marks, shaded with paint, dowels, crutches, laid in permanent buildings close to the route. Walking sights or construction benches also serve as a height justification - U-shaped wooden

Whether metal structures are buried with legs in the upper edge across the trench/0.5 m into the ground; they are located approximately at a distance of 1.0-/^.5 m from the edges of the trench. The horizontal element of the bench is located at a height of up to 1 m from the ground surface. The gasket axis and mark are placed on it.

When surveying, the location and depth of underground communications are determined.

There are two types of surveying: surveying of previously laid communications and those being laid. Filming of previously laid communications is carried out by specialized organizations. Access to communications is carried out through wells or by pitting (digging). Filming of communications laid during the construction process (executive) is carried out by construction organizations.

Executive filming begins with reconnaissance. Using topographic and geodetic data, the geodetic basis and communications are found in nature, missing or lost points are restored, and survey methods are selected. For each type of gasket, it is specified: what needs to be removed, what information, in addition to geodetic data, should be displayed on the as-built documentation.

As a rule, during executive survey the following objects are recorded: along the water supply system - routes, wells, inlets, emergency outlets, including fire hydrants and dispensing points, artesian wells; for sewerage, drainage, drainage, heating networks - routes, wells, turning angles, network breaks in the profile, points of connections and outlets, chambers, compensators; along steam, oil, and gas pipelines - network routes, turning angles, chambers, connection points, inputs, kinks in the profile; via cable networks - routes, wells, distribution cabinets, transformer substations, inputs and connections.

When drawing up sketches and collecting materials, record the number of gaskets, holes, material of pipes, wells, channels, diameters, pressure, voltage, type of fastening in the collectors, etc.

In the planned position, fix the axis of the pipe, cable, the center of the well, and the edge of the collector. If the gaskets come in a bunch, in rows, or in blocks, then one side is fixed. For round wells, remove the center of the lid; for rectangular hatches, remove two corners. The remaining dimensions are measured and recorded. This makes it possible, when drawing up an as-built drawing in office conditions, to plot the dimensions of the route according to the reference value.

In terms of height, marks are taken of hatches, wells, chambers, the surface of the soil or road surfaces at wells and at profile breaks, as well as characteristic points of the ground surface, marks of the top of pipes, cables, trays and differences or changes in the diameters of gaskets.

Along the communication route, a strip of at least 20 m wide is removed in plan; all lifting structures crossing the

laid route or running parallel and opened by a trench; record all buildings adjacent to the highway (location, house number, number of floors, purpose).

Rice. 72. Horizontal shooting diagrams: A- linear serifs, b, c - methods of perpendiculars and continuation of alignments

If the route is located no further than 4 m from the target, use the perpendicular method (Fig. 72, b). The length of perpendiculars (for example, 3.80, 3.21 m) from the target is no more than 4 m. For longer perpendiculars, the survey route is additionally determined by a notch (for example, 4.67 m).

The method of extending the alignments is also used (Fig. 72, V) and combinations: alignment and notch, alignment and perpendicular. When using theodolite or other traverses as a survey basis, surveying is performed using the polar coordinate method.

If buried (over 1 m) wells or other elements are removed, they are first projected with a plumb line onto the surface, and then measurements are taken. When the cover located eccentrically above the well is removed, according to the measurement results, the eccentricity e(Fig. 73) is calculated using the formula: e = b-And where b, a- measured radii of the cover and well.

When determining the marks of elements of deep routes, depth slats are used; You can also use proportional compasses of larger sizes. Errors in the position of network routes should not exceed 10 cm in plan and 10 mm (gravity pipelines) in height when shooting on a scale of 1: 500. Measurements are taken with tape measures and meters. The results are recorded on an enlarged sketch of a well, chamber, etc. Such sketches are drawn in the field during shooting in outline books and magazines.

Plans are drawn up based on the results of executive surveys. The basis for the plan is topographical plans of the area. Plans are drawn up on the scale of design drawings in strips along the axis of the laid communication. They usually come in scales from 1: 200 to 1: 5000. For urban built-up areas, the most widely used scale is 1: 500. All underground networks and structures are drawn on plans of this scale. Technical characteristics of gaskets are applied at the boundaries of the plan or at the beginning of installation, as well as in places where the diameters or materials of pipes change. The plans show the location marks of the trays, numbers of wells and inlets, pressure, voltage, cross-section, number of gaskets.

Rice. 74. Connection diagram of a device for searching underground communications (A) and antenna location (b, c):

b- perpendicular, V- in parallel; 1 - grounding conductor, 2 - generator, 3, 4 - soil, 5, 8 - tracks, 6, 7 - hearing curves

First, copies of the topographic plan are compared with the survey outlines. Changes (new development, road network, communication routes) are transferred from outlines to the topographic plan. After applying the survey results, the reliability of the quality of the materials and the application process itself is analyzed. Materials that raise doubts are clarified and verified in situ or in operating organizations.

Adjacent tablets with updated data are joined - framed. If a communication, road, or building is partially depicted on the previous tablet, then its continuation is shown on the adjacent one. And since errors and inaccuracies are possible during application (graphic, paper deformability, etc.), the plan

The sheets are graphically joined or combined. Fractures and curvatures of more than 0.3 mm are unacceptable.

The tablets are drawn with colored ink. Each tablet is accompanied by a form - a table with technical data on the gasket. A list of materials used and the names of the performers are also indicated here.

When drawing up plans for sites with a dense communications network, an additional catalog of coordinates and heights of underground network wells is compiled.

Pipelines with a diameter of 1000 mm or more are shown on a plan scale, their routes are shown taking into account the magnitude and direction of displacement of manhole covers. If on a plan of a given scale the characteristics of communication cannot be depicted graphically, explanatory inscriptions are made, for example: “br.”, “protect.” - armored cable, security zone. The diameters of pipes are shown in millimeters, while for pressure pipes the outer diameters are indicated, and for gravity pipes the internal diameters are indicated.

Each of us more than once or twice noticed and walked around open entrances to city underground communications, sewer and other wells on the streets. And some, less fortunate, did not notice and did not bypass and then had the opportunity to familiarize themselves with their internal structure and contents in more detail.

One of my friends, who was going to college in early spring, decided to cross a shallow puddle and suddenly disappeared from sight in the middle of it. After 10 seconds she surfaced. It turns out that the puddle hid an uncovered sewer well flooded with meltwater. She got off very lightly, with a complete mud bath and ruined clothes. Sometimes such stories have a tragic ending.

Do not pass by open sewer, cable and other wells. Don't be lazy, put the lid back in place. Just be sure to look inside before you do so, so as not to accidentally wall up the person below. I was told an anecdotal story when a passer-by, who saw a hole in an open hatch, quickly pushed the lid back and, with a sense of fulfilled duty, moved on, and seconds later a car drove into that hatch with its rear wheel. The signalman who was fixing the cable damage sat in the darkness of the well all evening and all night until his fading cry was heard by passers-by.

In addition to the worker, you can push and thereby doom to death a person who has lost consciousness as a result of a fall in the communication line, poisoning by gases accumulated in the well, or another reason. Even more dangerous than fully open wells are half-closed ones. In such cases, a walking person, not seeing a threat, confidently steps on the edge of the lid, turns it over and, having lost support, falls down. In addition to the fall itself, a person can be injured from a heavy, usually cast iron, lid pinching or hitting him from above.

Unclosed and half-closed hatches pose the greatest threat to children. If an adult usually ends up with bruises and fractures when falling, a child can drown in a main sewer pipe or receive a fatal injury from being hit on the head by a falling lid. It happens that children who have fallen into underground communications and are carried far away by the pressure of water are not found at all.

A cyclist who runs his front wheel into a poorly closed hatch can be seriously injured. A wheel falling out while moving leads to an instant stop of the bicycle and the rider's face hitting the asphalt.
That is why all hatches must be closed in such a way that the protrusions on the cover necessarily coincide with the grooves on the edge of the hatch. In all other cases, the hatch must be considered open.

It is better not to step on any manhole cover, and if you step, then only in the middle, and not from the edge, then there will be an opportunity, if he “plays” under your foot, to jump onto the asphalt. This is a tactic for overcoming wells, as well as grates covering flood drains, etc. design, should become a habit, a conditioned reflex that does not require additional understanding. Wells can pose a mortal danger for people who go down inside, due to the gases accumulating there in dangerous concentrations.

After all, underground communications (except perhaps for mines in the metro) are not ventilated and become natural reservoirs of various kinds of heavy (heavier than air) gases. For example, propane leaking from a pipeline. Or the no less explosive and no less poisonous hydrogen sulfide, which in small doses smells like a rotten egg. And in large ones, it dulls the sense of smell. Or carbon dioxide that tends to flow down. The presence of any one gas is rarely observed in wells and other underground communications. Usually this is a cocktail of several gases, the inhalation of which can lead to instant loss of consciousness and death.

One of my friends’ father died this way. He died stupidly, due to failure to comply with basic safety rules, and more than one died. They, having no experience in underground work, were sent to fix a fault found in a cable well. They did not check the concentration of carbon dioxide and other gases simply because they did not know about anything like that. The guy who was a trainee came down first and fell a second later, without having time to shout or warn his comrades about the danger.

His partner rushed to his aid, without even bothering to think about the reasons for what had happened, and also fell onto the concrete floor without crying out. My friend’s father was the third to go down the well. He, too, could not leave his comrades in a misfortune that was unclear to him, but obvious. All three of them died. To avoid becoming a victim of underground gas poisoning, never go down into closed underground communications or unventilated wells unless absolutely necessary. If this cannot be avoided, find the owners of the well and force them to check the concentration of CO2 and other gases in the bottom layer using special instruments.

As a last resort, carry out a primitive express check using burning matches or scraps of paper thrown down. If the fire immediately goes out, this may indicate a lack of oxygen. It is better not to go down into such a well. It is unacceptable to throw into gas wells, etc. pipelines, and into service wells and sewer wells when you smell propane.

Burning alive is no better than suffocating. It is much more difficult to avoid accidents associated with falling into gullies formed as a result of water breakthroughs in city pipelines. If a poorly closed sewer well can be seen and bypassed in time, then the void under the asphalt is very difficult to notice. Water bursting under high pressure washes away the ground, and gradually a void may form under the sidewalk, covered on top with a thin asphalt membrane. Step on one of these and you will instantly fall into a deep hole.

Any sign of a break in water or heating pipes should alert a person walking by. These could be murmuring and humming sounds coming from underground, slight vibration of the soil underfoot, water running from underground, puddles with swirling whirlpools in the middle, steam escaping from underground, subsidence or swelling of asphalt. Do not go near such places under any circumstances. Remember, the actual water breakthrough may be much larger than the observed one.

One can only guess in which direction the soil was washed out. Use extreme caution if you see steam nearby. It may indicate a break in a heating plant or hot water supply pipe. Falling into a hole with cold water is unpleasant, unprofitable in terms of damage to clothing, but not fatal. Falling into hot water can lead to painful death. If you notice signs of a water breakthrough, do not engage in amateur activities, do not try to carry out additional reconnaissance, especially repairs. Immediately notify heating networks or the nearest administrative authorities about the incident. If you want to take part in a good deed, fence off the dangerous place and wait for the repair team.

Based on materials from the book “School of Survival in Accidents and Natural Disasters.”
Andrey Ilyichev.