Is the social natural? (to the discussion about the reform of social sciences). The biosphere’s ability to cope with the consequences of human activity is based on the concept of the development of modern civilization
But such aspiration alone is not enough for an exchange to take place; there must be prerequisites, or, in other words, certain objective circumstances that will allow a person to realize this aspiration in practice. They are also mentioned in the quote above. So from the words of the author it follows that the person who makes bows and arrows faster than others uses them in exchange. Such a statement means that A. Smith believed that if a person produces these goods in the same way as everyone else, or more slowly than others, he will not be able to use them for exchange. Since in order to receive more instead of less through an exchange, he must offer something more, from the point of view of his partner in the transaction, because he also makes an exchange, and therefore benefits from the same plan. But this is only possible if each party produces the thing alienated during the exchange faster than its partner . Strictly speaking, what matters here is the relative, not the absolute, rate of production of a certain good. Thus, in the above example, it was shown that an exchange can make sense for both parties involved in the transaction, even if one of them, in absolute terms, produces both products faster than the other. The difference in production capabilities necessary for exchange (substitution) is manifested here in the relative speeds of production of the exchanged products. By the way, this is precisely why less developed countries, lagging behind in terms of labor productivity, can participate in the international division of labor, supplying their products to countries where these products are manufactured at lower costs of all types of resources. This will be discussed in more detail later, but for now I have the right to talk only about how A. Smith saw the problem. The fact that the conclusion drawn from his words is true can be confirmed by another quote from his work. " Anyone who offers another a transaction of any kind is offering to do just that. Give me what I need, and you will get what you need—that is the meaning of any such proposal. It is in this way that we obtain from each other much of the service we need. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their observance of their own interests. We appeal not to their humanity, but to their selfishness, and we never speak to them of our needs, but of their benefits." Adam Smith. "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." BOOK 1. Chapter II "On the cause of the division of labor." So A. Smith saw not only inequality representing the essence of exchange, but also inequality being one of the prerequisites for its occurrence, consisting in the unequal abilities of people to produce various goods. What is striking is that he did not discern the true meaning of either of them. Because subsequently, speaking about the quantitative side of the exchange relation, he proceeds not from the inequalities he indicated, but from the equation, thereby showing inconsistency in judgments. " In a primitive and underdeveloped society, prior to the accumulation of capital and the conversion of land into private property, the ratio between the amounts of labor required to acquire different objects was, apparently, the only basis that could serve as a guide for exchanging them for each other. Thus, for example, if among a hunting people it is customary to expend twice as much labor to kill a beaver as to kill a deer, one beaver will naturally exchange for two deer, or will have the value of two deer. It is quite natural that a product usually produced in two days or two hours of labor will have twice the value of a product usually produced in one day or one hour of labor." . Further, regarding the exchange ratio of labor for capital, he again returns to inequalities, since it is simply impossible not to see them in this case. In particular, he notes " When exchanging finished goods for money, for labor or for other products, in addition to paying the price of materials and wages of workers, a certain amount must also be given for the profit of the entrepreneur risking his capital in this business. ... He would have no interest in hiring these workers if he could not expect to receive from the sale of the works they produced anything more than an amount sufficient only to replace his capital." Adam Smith. "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations." BOOK 1. Chapter VI "On the components of the price of goods".
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Features of modern migration processes:
Unprecedented scale of labor migration. Of particular note is the increase in intra-continental migration.
Industrialized countries continue to be the world's main centers of labor force attraction. They account for 54 million immigrants - almost half of all the world's inhabitants living outside their countries of origin. The USA, Canada, and Australia are leading in the process of attracting foreign labor.
A circle of states has formed that “specialize” in the export of their labor resources: Morocco, Portugal, Pakistan, Turkey, Poland, Spain, and many countries with economies in transition.
Among migrant workers, young people (under 35 years of age) predominate, predominantly working in blue-collar professions.
Migration of labor resources is facilitated by modern production technologies, which are based on the international division of labor and the active participation of TNCs in it.
The level of illegal immigration remains high in all global labor centers. There are about 4 million permanent illegal migrants in the United States and about 3 million in Western Europe. In 200, the number of border guards in the United States increased to 10 thousand people (almost three times more than in the early 90s) in order to strengthen border control on the border with Mexico, where the vast majority of illegal migrants enter.
“Brain drain” in modern conditions is complemented by their diversification not only to the principle “to capital”, but also “simultaneously with capital and after it”
Increasing seasonality of migration flows (agriculture, forestry).
The metropolitan countries (in the past) focused on importing labor from their colonies (England - India).
Traditional migration countries: USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa - by the 20th century. Only Europeans went there, now only a small part of them, and mostly from Asia and Latin America.
Increasingly active government intervention in migration processes.
In general, we can talk about the intensification of migration processes in all their manifestations.
- Science, which, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, studies the patterns of processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population, is called:
A) global studies G) political science
b) sociology e) demography +
V) world economy e) economical geography
2. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:A) increase in the number of births
b) reduction in mortality among the population
V) depopulation +
G) decreased life expectancy +
d) increasing life expectancy,
These phenomena include:E) Central European regions of Russia +
AND) Ural +
H) Siberia +
AND) Far East +
Pass more intensely in:TO) Russians +
L) Ukrainians
M) immigrants
N) Chuvash
ABOUT) representatives of national minorities
3. According to calculations by the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation and the Center for Economic Current Affairs under the Government of the Russian Federation, the most likely forecast for the demographic situation in Russia for the period up to 2005 is:
A) increase in the country's population
b) stabilization of population growth
V) population decline +
4. In industrialized countries, trends are emerging:A) acceleration of population growth rates in megacities
b) population growth in megacities
V) reduction in the population of megacities +
G) population migration from big cities +
d) slowdown in population growth in megacities +
e)“overflow” of the rural population into cities
5. Share of part-time workers in the total number of employees in the PRS:A) is declining V) stabilized
b) growing +
6. The main sign of external migration of the population:A) change of residence
b) change of job
V) movement of migrants across state borders +
d) change of citizenship
Tasks:Describe the main directions of demographic policy in groups of countries with different levels of economic development.
What are the main features of labor demand in industrialized countries?
What are the characteristics of the use of labor in developing countries?
What benefits do host countries receive from international migration?
Lomakin V.K. World Economy.- Textbook. Moscow: UNITY, 2000, 727 pp., chapter 12.
International economic relations / Edited by V.E. Rybalkin, M., 1998, chapter 9.
Global labor market: a new reality. - M.: Nauka, 1994.
IEO / Ed. B.P. Suprunovich. M., 1995, chapter 9.
Nukhovich E.S., Smitienko B.M., Eskindarov M.A. World economy at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. M., 1995, chapter 2.
Fundamentals of foreign economic relations / Ed. I.P.Faminsky. M.: International relations, 1994, chapter 5.
Sergeev P.V. World Economy / Textbook: Moscow: Jurisprudence, 1999, p. 105 – 113.
Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation” dated August 15, 1996 - Rossiyskaya Gazeta, August 16, 1996.
Additional literature:
Bulletin of foreign commercial information. – 2000. - No. 73-74; 86
International trade. – 1995. - No. 1.
World economy and international relations. – 1995. - No. 1.
World economy and international relations. – 1996. - No. 3.
World economy and international relations. – 2000. - No. 2. – P. 70.
World economy and international relations. 1999. - No. 3. – P. 52; No. 8. – P. 20; No. 10. – P. 66, 74; No. 11. – P. 19
Problems of management theory and practice. – 2000. - No. 2. – P. 67.
Historical prerequisites for the emergence of international financial capital.
Features of international monopolies of the first, second and third generations (colonial-raw materials, integration, global).
Modern transnational corporations. Types of TNCs. Forms of development of the world market by transnational corporations.
Scientific and technological revolution and international corporations. Master agreements and strategic alliances between leading groups of international financial capital.
Financial and industrial groups and prospects for transnational activities of Russian capital.
Lecture material.
Transnational corporations (TNCs), according to UN experts, are the “engines of the world economy.” This is exactly what one of the UN reports on broadcasting corporations was called. Today there are approximately 65 thousand TNCs in the world, and the number of their foreign branches exceeds 500 thousand. Transnational capital controls up to 1/2 of world industrial production, 65% of foreign trade, 4/5 of patents and licenses for finished equipment, technologies and “know-how”.
The core of this system consists of about 500 TNCs, which have enormous economic power. The total foreign exchange reserves of TNCs are several times greater than the reserves of all national banks. TNCs are large, bureaucratic corporations that manage risk within the corporate structure, control huge cash flows, act as government contractors, attract world-class technology, and also possess a wealth of proprietary information.
All these facts make us think about the role and place of transnational corporations in the modern world. Having crossed national borders, transnational capital created a new system of international relations, in which supranational entities, primarily TNCs themselves, began to play a significant, if not decisive, role.
The UN, which traditionally studies the activities of international corporations, has long classified among them those firms that had an annual turnover exceeding $100 million and branches in at least 6 countries. In recent years, some clarification has been made: the international status of a company is now indicated by such an indicator as the percentage of its sales sold outside the country of residence. According to this indicator, one of the world leaders is the Swiss company Nestlé (98%).
According to the UN methodology, an international corporation can also be recognized by the structure of its assets. The largest foreign assets among transnational corporations (except for the financial sector) - transnational banks (TNB) - are owned by the Anglo-Dutch concern Royal Dutch Shell, followed by 4 companies from the USA: Ford, General Motors, Exxon and "IBM".
One of the criteria for classifying a company as transnational is the composition of its top management, which, as a rule, should be formed from residents of different states in order to exclude the unilateral orientation of the company’s activities towards the interests of any one country. However, practice shows that most often the top management personnel of the parent company is formed from representatives of its home country, and the top management of subsidiaries also consists of them, using local personnel in ordinary positions.
Considering that the formulation of the concept of “transnational corporation” affects the interests of many states, a compromise version of the definition of this concept in the UN Commission on Transnational Corporations states that a TNC is a company:
comprising units in two or more countries, regardless of legal form and field of activity;
operating within a decision-making system that allows for coherent policies and overall strategy through one or more decision-making centers;
in which the individual units are linked through ownership or otherwise so that one or more of them can have significant influence over the activities of the others and, in particular, share knowledge, resources and responsibilities with the others.
In Western economic literature one can find many definitions of international monopolies: multinational corporations, international corporations, transnational companies, global companies, etc. Thus, the famous American marketer F. Kotler, based on organizational principles, identifies these four types of international companies (Diagram 4).
Global company
Transnational company
Multinational International
company company
Russian economists, as a rule, offer the following definition:
Transnational corporations - These are national monopolies with foreign assets. Their production and trade and marketing activities extend beyond the borders of one state.
A corporation in the United States is a joint-stock company, and since most modern transnational corporations arose as a result of the international expansion of American companies, this term was included in their definition.
The legal regime of transnational corporations involves business activities carried out in various countries through the formation of branches and subsidiaries in them. These companies have relatively independent services for production and sales of finished products, research and development, services to consumers, etc.
In general, they constitute a single large production and sales complex with ownership of the share capital only by representatives of the founding country. At the same time, branches and subsidiaries can be mixed enterprises with predominantly national participation.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are actually international corporations that unite national companies of a number of countries on a production, scientific and technical basis. An example of such a company is usually the Anglo-Dutch concern Royal Dutch Shell, which has existed since 1907. The modern capital of this company is divided in the proportion 60:40. An example of a multinational corporation is the Swiss-Swedish company ABB (Asea Brown Bovery), widely known in Europe, specializing in the field of mechanical engineering and electronic engineering. ABB has several joint ventures in the CIS countries. Among the leading multinational corporations in Europe is the Anglo-Dutch chemical and technological concern Unilever.
From the point of view of international law, distinctive features multinational corporations are: 1) the presence of multinational share capital; 2) the existence of a multinational leadership center; 3) staffing the administration of foreign branches with personnel who know local conditions. The latter, by the way, are also characteristic of many transnational corporations. In general, the boundaries between these two groups of international companies are very fluid; it is possible for one company to move to another.
To transnational and multinational corporations, one should also add global corporations (GCs), which have emerged from the environment of international companies. They emerged in the 80s and continue to gain strength. Global corporations are characterized by a geocentric approach to the relationship between the parent company and its subsidiaries. These TNCs are like a decentralized federation of regional branches. The parent company does not view itself as the center of the TNC, but only as one of its parts.
Global corporations represent the full power of modern global financial capital. The chemical, electrical, electronic, oil, automotive, information, banking and some other industries are most inclined towards globalization. In general, the boundaries between these groups of international companies are very fluid, so a transition from one form to another is possible.
The development of TNCs has a direct impact on the growth of the world economy. There are several main areas of influence of TNCs on the global economy:
TNCs largely determine the dynamics and structure, the level of competitiveness in the global market for goods and services.
TNCs control the international movement of capital and foreign direct investment. They are the main investors in developing countries and actively influence the level of their economic development, while at the same time having extensive spheres of influence in developed countries. This suggests that modern TNCs are capable of influencing the level of economic development of entire regions.
TNCs play a huge role in the transfer of technology and knowledge, concentrating R&D in their research centers. Thanks to the production and financial capabilities of TNCs, they concentrate the most knowledge-intensive industries in their hands. TNCs are developing the latest types of products with the most popular consumer properties, thereby contributing to the process of technological development of production.
TNCs are a stimulator of international labor migration. They contribute to the dissemination of professional knowledge and the process of exchange of experience between employees from different countries. This creates an international labor market, which is characterized by processes of convergence of professional training of personnel from different countries.
At the same time, the role of TNCs cannot be assessed unambiguously positively. Their interests often conflict with national states and small and medium-sized businesses.
What are the reasons for the emergence of multinational companies?
The most common reason for their occurrence is the internationalization of production and capital based on the development of productive forces that outgrow national borders.
The internationalization of capital production takes on the character of expansion of economic relations through the creation by the largest companies of their own branches abroad and the transformation of national corporations into transnational ones. The export of capital is becoming the most important factor in the formation and development of international corporations.
The specific reasons for the emergence of transnational corporations include the desire to obtain excess profits. In turn, fierce competition and the need to survive this struggle also contributed to the concentration of production and capital on an international scale and the emergence of TNCs.
Being a product of objective economic processes occurring in the world economy, transnational corporations have a number of specific features. TNCs are active participants in the international division of labor and contribute to its development.
Modern trends in the activities of TNCs.
The movement of capital of transnational corporations, as a rule, is independent of the processes occurring in the country where the corporations are based. TNCs are establishing a system of international production based on the location of branches, subsidiaries, and branches in many countries of the world.
In cases where the interests of transnational capital objectively coincide with the interests of certain national states, it can provide them with significant and even decisive advantages in intercountry economic competition. Developed countries actively promote the development of their own TNCs, which, in turn, ensure the flow of tax funds from international activities and the spread of their economic and political influence.
In relation to “its” TNCs, the state pursues a rather contradictory and ambivalent policy. Since these monopolies are “our own”, the state provides them with all kinds of loans, subsidies, subsidies, and preferential taxation. However, the growing power of international monopolies leads to an increase in the outflow of capital from the country through direct investment channels, which has an undesirable negative impact on the dynamics of employment and unemployment, labor productivity, the growth rate of industrial production and, consequently, the volume of GNP within the economy of the home country. In addition, large corporations are sometimes able to direct the foreign policy of the home country in their own interests. There are many known cases when the governments of the USA, Great Britain and other home countries found themselves embroiled in costly international conflicts in order to protect the interests of their own TNCs.
Transnational corporations are penetrating high-tech, knowledge-intensive industries that require huge investments and highly qualified personnel. At the same time, there is a noticeable tendency towards monopolization of these industries by transnational corporations.
In the 90s, three quarters of the industrial output of developed countries was produced by approximately 2 thousand largest corporations. Several hundred of them produced from 50 to 80% of the most important types of products. These transnational corporations bear the main production and innovation load.
Recently, there has been an increasing trend towards the consolidation of TNCs. It is associated primarily with the process of mergers and acquisitions, the volume of which in the late 90s amounted to $544 billion. The result of numerous mergers and acquisitions, as well as strategic alliances, is the formation of new TNCs of the oligopolistic type. Currently, in developed countries, the dominant position in each industry is occupied by only two or three supergiants, competing with each other in the markets of all countries.
Of the 500 most powerful transnational corporations, 85 control 70% of all foreign investments. These 500 giants sell 80% of all industrial products in electronics and chemistry, 95% of pharmaceuticals, and 76% of mechanical engineering products.
By the beginning of the 21st century, the dominance of 300-600 transnational corporations had established in the world economy. At the same time, 300 corporations control 75% of the world's gross product and carry out significant diversification of their production and services. Thus, the Swedish automobile concern Volvo is already producing not only world-famous cars. This multinational corporation, which has more than 30 large subsidiaries of various profiles in Sweden and several dozen abroad, produces motors for boats, aircraft engines, food and even Pripps beer. In turn, each of the 500 largest US transnational companies has on average enterprises in 11 industries, and the most powerful ones cover 30-50 industries. In the group of 100 leading industrial firms in England, 96 are diversified, in Germany - 78, in France - 84, in Italy - 90. The number and nature of enterprises included in transnational corporations is determined mainly by economic feasibility.
In general, TNCs at the beginning of the 21st century were characterized by an increase in capital investment in the service sector. In particular, more than 5% of foreign direct investment of the largest TNCs in the late 90s was directed to the service sector, including R&D and marketing research.
Innovation and research work are playing an increasingly important role for modern TNCs. Companies in all industries are being forced to increase R&D spending in order to gain a competitive advantage. It should be noted that modern TNCs prefer to concentrate research and development work in the parent company and place production in foreign countries. Since more than 85% of leading TNCs are based in the USA, Japan and the European Union, these countries accumulate almost all major scientific developments. Thus, the economies of these countries are increasingly focused on the production of intellectual products rather than material ones.
An essential aspect of the activities of modern TNCs is the unprecedented boom in the development of telecommunications technologies. The global information infrastructure largely contributes to the development of TNCs. Using the capabilities of modern telecommunications, TNCs have received unlimited opportunities to exchange information both between the parent company and foreign branches, and with other TNCs.
1. The totality of interacting national economies of all countries of the world and international economic relations is...
£ world production
World economy
£ world market
2. The number of independent states currently recognized by the world community:
3. The number of the most economically powerful developed countries with market economies:
4. Modern world economic relations are based on:
Total dominance of market relations
£ limited distribution of market relations
£ predominance of political agreements
£ to strengthen the role of anti-terrorism agreements
5. "Open economy" implies:
Availability of the domestic market to attract foreign capital
£ elimination of national borders
£ complete abolition of customs duties and restrictions
6. System-forming factor of the modern world economy:
£ offer
Capital
7. Uneven economic development of countries means:
£ differences in the standard of living of the population
Differences in the level of industrial development and technical equipment of labor
£ varying degrees of openness of the national economy
8. Indicators expressing the openness of the national economy:
£ volume of foreign investment
Import quotas
£ number of people employed in export production
9. Groups of countries in the world economy in accordance with the UN typology:
Developed countries with market economies
£ industrialized countries
Countries with economies in transition
£newly industrializing countries
Developing countries and territories with market economies
10. Criteria for classifying a country into a particular group:
Type of its economy
Level of socio-economic development
£ level and quality of life of the population
£ development of the military-industrial complex
£ volume of gross domestic product
GDP per capita
11. Countries included in "group 7":
£ Brazil
France
12.Countries of the "New Industrial Countries" group:
£ Nigeria
£ Uruguay
Taiwan
£ Vietnam
Singapore
13.Countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:
Netherlands
Norway
Ireland
14.Characteristic trends inherent in the current stage of development of the world economy:
Deeper international division of labor
£autarcism
Globalization
Intensifying competition
15. New industrial countries of the “first wave”:
Taiwan
£ Indonesia
The Republic of Korea
Hong Kong
Singapore
£ Vietnam
16. Key changes in the traditional North-South equilibrium scheme of the world economy after the 70s. XX century happened because...
£ collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
Appearances of NIS
£ decay of CMEA
17. Key changes in the traditional “West-East” equilibrium scheme of the world economy after the 70s. XX century happened because...
The collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
£ appearance of NIS
The collapse of CMEA
£ formation of new markets for goods
£ collapse of the colonial system
18. In the technogenic model of world development, the “periphery” took
Dependent and subordinate position
£ dominant position
19. In the technogenic model of global development, the “periphery” specializes in supplies to the world market
Mineral raw materials
Energy
Agricultural products
£ science-intensive products
20.Protectionism of the foreign trade policy of the world economy is based on
Import substitution
£ export promotion
State or international regulation
£ market freedom
21. Liberalization of foreign trade policy of the world economy is based on
£ import substitution
Export promotion
£ national or international regulation
Freedom of the market
22. The main features of the manifestation of uneven development of the world economy are considered
£ the gap in the development levels of the PRS and developing countries has narrowed
The differentiation of developing countries by level of economic development is growing
There is a change in leading countries
In the context of globalization of the world economy, newly industrialized countries have approached the group of leading exporters
The gap between the development levels of PRS and developing countries has widened
23. Countries with market economies are considered
OPEC countries
£ CIS countries
24. Countries with economies in transition are considered
£ OPEC countries
CIS countries
25.The emerging global world economy includes national economies
Industrialized countries
Newly industrialized countries
Developing countries
£ raw material supplying countries
Countries with economies in transition
£ countries with a command-and-control system of government
26.The main results of international cooperation are considered
£ strengthening friendship between countries
Increasing the output of manufactured goods
£ obtaining free licenses and patents
£ deepening MRI
27. Motives for the participation of countries in the international division of labor
£ gaining access to new technologies
£ redistribution of spheres of influence between countries
Receiving economic benefits
£ access to sources of raw materials and energy
28. Economic benefits of the country from participation in the international division of labor:
£ obtaining information about competitors
Saving national costs from the failure of domestic production of goods and services due to their cheaper imports
£ receiving ground rent
29. Reasons for the development of the international division of labor:
Differences in natural and climatic conditions
£ geopolitical features of the country's situation
£ carrying out a policy of import substitution
30. Form of participation of the country in the international division of labor, subject to production of products in excess of domestic needs:
£ international division of labor
£ international cooperation
£ sectoral division of labor
International production specialization
31. The form of labor union at various stages of production and sale of goods and services is called:
£ international division of labor
£ productive cooperation
International cooperation
£ import substitution
£ international specialization
32. The increase in the export quota reflects:
Increasing the level of competitiveness of export-oriented products
£ increased productivity
£ favorable conditions on world commodity markets
33. Basic forms of international division of labor:
International specialization
International cooperation
£ regional integration
£ internationalization of production
£ globalization of the world economy
34. The intellectualization of the international division of labor is expressed in:
£ increase in the export quota
Form of scientific and technical cooperation
Form of technological cooperation
£ strengthening the role of TNCs
35. The classic theoretical principles for the development of the international division of labor are considered...
£ theory of supply and demand
Theory of relative advantage (D. Ricardo)
The theory of absolute advantage (A. Smith)
£ mercantilist theories
36. The main functions of international cooperation:
Increased productivity
£ deepening the international division of labor
Increased production of goods and services
£ receiving free assistance
37. The export quota indicator indicates:
£ level of production cooperation
The degree of orientation of individual sectors of the national economy towards foreign markets
£ nature of foreign economic relations
Level of industry international specialization
38. Quantitative indicators of the openness of the economies of the world economy are considered
Export quota
£ export quotas
Import quota
£ import quotas
Foreign trade quota
39. The most dynamically developing areas of the international division of labor at present:
£ production
£ transport
Information Services
£ investment
40.The specific specialization of countries in the production of certain goods and services depends on...
Natural-geographical conditions
Scientific and technical interaction between countries
Industrial cooperation
£use of international legal norms and rules
41. Correspondence between the subjects of the world economy and the specific forms of their manifestation
42.The essence of the international division of labor is manifested in:
Dissection of the production process
Consolidation of the production process
£ diversification of sources of raw materials and labor
43. The main types of international specialization are...
Subject
£ single
Detailed
Technological
£ private
44. Main areas of international specialization:
Production
£ scientific
£ technological
Territorial
Intersectoral
Intra-industry
45. The main subjects of the global world economy:
Globalizing capital - TNCs, TNB, MFC
£ United Nations (UN)
46. The solution to the contradictions of the globalization process comes down to...:
£ strengthening assistance to least developed countries
Giving the process of globalization a social orientation
£ guide the globalization process for the benefit of the least developed countries of the world economy
£ addressing corruption issues in the developing world
47. Problems associated with the relationship between man and nature:
Use of ocean resources
£ development of culture, education, healthcare
£ ensuring employment of the economically active population
£ international terrorism
48. Problems associated with the relationship "person-society":
Development of culture, education, healthcare
£ peaceful space exploration
£ disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ preservation and restoration of ecological balance
49.Main areas of activity of ECOSOC, as one of the main divisions of the UN
£policy
£ science and culture
Economy
50. Issues of development of education, science and culture in the UN system are dealt with
51. The main activities of UNCTAD:
international trade
£ cultural environment
£ art
£ international scientific and technical progress
52. In the process of globalization, contradictions arise between...
Countries with market economies and countries with economies in transition
Countries with developed economies and least developed countries MX
£ leading countries of the world
53. The main reasons for the emergence of the “anti-globalization” movement:
Globalization benefits the “club of select countries”
Globalization is implemented on the basis of taking into account the cultural values of the “West”
£ All countries enjoy the benefits of globalization
54. Global demographic problems are
World population growth
£ population migration
Population aging
£ illegal migration
55. Global problems in the political sphere:
Rogue countries
International terrorism
£ religion
56. Global problems in the economic field:
£ economic wars
The growing gap of developing countries
The problem of international debt
£ confrontation between interstate blocs
£ conflict between TNCs and national companies
57. Global social problems:
Income inequality
Unemployment
£ fall in real wages
£ urbanization
58. Global environmental problems:
£ limited resources
The problem of waste and pollution
Climate warming
£ agricultural land problem
59. Characteristic features of globalization of the world economy:
Liberalization of foreign trade
Strengthening the role of TNCs in the global economy
£ unresolved problem of external debt
£ strengthening of international terrorism
Increasing the regulatory role of international economic organizations
60. Reasons for accelerating the process of globalization at the beginning of the 21st century:
Information Technology
New financial technologies
Growth of the international capital market
£ financial crises
£ uneven economic development of world economies
61. The area of the most dynamic development of the globalization process:
Economy
£ technology
Information
£ culture
£policy
Finance
62. Global socio-political problems:
Disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ energy problem
Providing employment for the economically active population
International terrorism
£ natural disasters
63.Global problems of a “natural-economic” nature include
Economic problems
Energy supply
£ demographic problems
£ health problems
£ problems of interethnic relations
Food and raw materials problem
64.The main activity of the UN specialized organization FAO is considered
£ development of international cooperation in the field of education, science, culture
Collection, synthesis and analysis of information on nutrition, environmental management, and fisheries
65. The most common mineral:
£iron ore
66. Of the fuel and energy fossil resources, the largest reserves are:
£biofuel
67. A peculiar geographical phenomenon of the last decades of the 21st century, which received the name “expansion” of the resource boundaries of the world economy in the scientific literature, is associated with:
£ involvement in industrial exploration and development of almost all countries of the world
The beginning of the development of new sources of minerals in hard-to-reach territories and shelf waters
£ discovery of fundamentally new types of minerals
68. Countries that almost completely satisfy their needs for fuel and energy resources from their own sources:
£ Mongolia
Norway
69.The basis of the ability of the biosphere to cope with the consequences of human activity is the concept of the development of modern civilization...
£ concept "limits to economic growth"
£ concept of a “new quality” of economic growth
The concept of "sustainable development"
70. Natural resources that create conditions for human existence primarily include:
71.The absolute limitation of mineral resources is associated with (check):
£ involvement of new types of resources into economic circulation
£ dramatic shifts in the production base
The general limitation of the scale of our planet and all types of resources
72. Renewable (reproducible) types of natural resources:
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
73.The relative limitation of mineral resources is due to:
£ general limited scale of our planet and all types of resources
Dramatic shifts in the production base
Involving new types of resources into economic circulation
74. Five countries in whose depths 100 billion tons of oil are concentrated (or 2/3 of all proven reserves):
£ Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
£ Norway
75. Seven countries in whose depths 60% of proven natural gas reserves are concentrated:
£ Ethiopia
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
£ Ukraine
Saudi Arabia
76. The main oil exporters currently are:
Mexico
£ Ethiopia
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela
77. Major oil importers:
EU countries
£ Mexico
78. Top five places in global demand for primary energy resources:
Hydropower
Natural gas
Atomic Energy
£wind energy
£ solar energy
79. The main factors that, according to P. Samulson, will ensure “crisis-free development” both for individual countries and for the global economy as a whole:
Natural resources
Population
Capital
Technical innovations
£ democracy
£ culture
£ environmental friendliness
£ humanity
80. “Six” leading countries in gold production:
Australia
81. Science, which, based on social, economic, biological and geographical factors, studies the processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population is called:
£ global studies
£ sociology
£ political science
Demography
£ world economy
82. The world population is projected to be:
£ gradually decrease
£ shrink slowly
Grow slower and slower
£ grow at an ever faster pace
83. The movement of the rural population to cities inevitably leads to:
£ marginalization
Urbanization
£ democratization
£demopulation
84. The movement of people across the borders of certain territories with a change of place of residence permanently or for a sufficiently long period is:
£ population diversification
£ marginalization of the population
Population migration
£ geopoliticization
£ urbanization
85. Front workers are:
£ officially registered migrant workers
£ illegal immigrants
Workers crossing the border every day
£ migrant family members
86.The increase in the proportion of highly qualified specialists among migrants leads to:
£ significant losses
£ increase in economic crime
£ political instability
Significant economic impact for host countries
87. Population groups united along national-ethnic or religious lines and living in a new region (country) are called:
£ nationality
Diaspora
88. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
£ growth in the number of births
£ reduction in mortality among the population
Depopulation
Declining life expectancy
£ increased life expectancy
89. A long-term trend of population aging is characteristic of the following countries:
£ developing countries
Industrialized countries
£ countries with economies in transition
90. The professional structure of the population reflects:
£ political activity of the country in the international arena
The degree of development of society as a whole
£ age and sex composition of the population
The achieved structure of the countries' economies
£ unemployment rate in the country
General trends in the distribution of the labor force by employment sector
91. Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAN in industrialized countries:
£ growth of EAN in agriculture
Reducing and stabilizing EAN in agriculture
Growth of employment in the service sector
92. Characteristic trends in the distribution of employment in developing countries:
£ growth in employment in agriculture
Industrial employment growth
High level of employment in agriculture
Growth of employment in the service sector
93.Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAN in countries with economies in transition:
Consistently high level of employment in agriculture
Growth of employment in the service sector
£ growth in employment in industry and construction
Decrease in employment in industry and construction
94. Reasons for international migration:
Economic
Demographic
Military-political
Environmental
£ terrorism
95.The characteristic features of the concept of “population explosion” are considered
Declining mortality
£ low mortality
High birth rate
Sharp increase in population growth rate
£ declining birth rate
£ stable or growing population with minimal dynamics
£ low birth rate
96.The characteristic features of the concept “Demographic maturity” are considered
£ decreasing mortality
Low mortality
£ high birth rate
£ declining birth rate
Low birth rate
Stable or growing population with minimal dynamics
97.The characteristic features of the concept “Demographic crisis” are considered
£ high birth rate
High mortality rate
Vital rate with a minus sign (-)
Depopulation
Mortality exceeds birth rate
98. Countries and regions of the world experiencing high rates of population growth include
Southeast Asian countries
Bangladesh
£ Israel
99. Correspondence between countries (regions of the world), and characteristic trends
100.Areas of activity that are classified as “high” technologies:
Nanotechnology
Information Technology
Biotechnology
£ continuous steel casting technology
Technologies based on the use of new materials
101.Indicators characterizing the scientific and technical potential of the world economy:
Number of specialists employed in science and scientific services
£ number of EANs in industry
Share of R&D expenses in VMP
Share of high-tech products in the VMP
Share of high-tech industry products on the world market
102. The cycles of scientific and technological development of the countries of the world economy according to N. Kondratiev’s theory of cyclical development are completed:
Changing technological structures
Technical revolution
£ political crises
103. The sequence of stages in formulating the global information space:
1: the emergence of writing
2: invention of the printing press (printing)
3: creation of telegraph, radio, telephone, television
4: the emergence of computer technology
5: the emergence of Internet technologies
104. Reasons for the sustainable growth of the knowledge intensity of the world economy:
Reducing the life cycle of high-tech products (frequent changes in generations of computers, household appliances, etc.)
Rising costs of research and development themselves
High costs for basic scientific research
Transnationalization of production
£ globalization MX
105. Quantitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
£ R&D management system
Availability of research personnel
Logistics support for R&D
£ main areas of scientific research
£ provision of scientific and technical information
106.Qualitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
R&D management system
£ availability of research personnel
£ logistics support for R&D
Main directions of scientific research
Availability of scientific and technical information
107.International scientific and technological exchange can be carried out
on a non-commercial basis through...
Licensing agreements for the rights to use inventions, etc.
Scientific and technical publications
Scientific conferences
£ migration of scientists and specialists
108. A decrease in the efficiency of the technology used leads to:
£ energy crises
Searching for new scientific ideas and technical solutions
Innovation boom
Massive update of machine generations
£mass migration
109. Number of least developed countries (LDCs) (according to the UN list):
110.Approximate population in the least developed countries... people
111. Least developed countries are predominantly located in:
£ Latin America
£South Asia
Tropical Africa
£ Eastern Europe
112.Differentiation by level of economic development between developed and developing countries in the twentieth century:
Increased
£ remained at a constant level
£ decreased
113. Uneven and contradictory development of countries in the modern world:
£ decreased
£ increased
Stopped
114. "Periphery" has taken a place in the technogenic model of world development - ...
£ equal position with "center"
Dependent position
£ independent position and specializes in supplying the world market
High technology products
£ minerals
Agricultural products
115. The main features inherent in the modern world economy:
£ transition to a post-industrial development model
£ a socially oriented model of a market economy emerged
The market economy has become universal
Increasing interdependence of countries and regions
The gap between the center and periphery of the world economy has widened
£ developing countries are catching up with developed countries in terms of economic development
116. Features of the catch-up development model:
Protectionism
£ liberalization of foreign trade activities
£ convertibility of the national currency
Strengthening government regulation of the economy
£ strengthening integration processes
117. The highest level of differentiation in the distribution of income in..
£ developed countries
Developing countries
£ newly industrialized countries
£ OPEC countries
Countries with economies in transition
118. The share of developing countries in world GDP is
£ less than 5%
£ about 10%
Over 30%
119. The share of countries with economies in transition in world GDP is...
£ over 20%
£ about 50%
£ about 10%
120. The main resources in an industrial society are considered
£ natural resources
Capital
£ information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ labor resources
121. The main resources in a post-industrial society are considered
£ natural resources
£ capital
Information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ labor resources
122. The dominant sector in the economies of developed countries is
£ primary
£ secondary
Tertiary
£ quaternary
123. The dominant sector in the economy of the least developed countries is
Primary
£ secondary
£ tertiary
£ quaternary.
124. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) of China at the end of the twentieth century was
Up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
£ less than 2% per annum
125. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) in Germany at the end of the twentieth century was
£ up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
Less than 2% per year.
126. The Marshall Plan was associated with
£ implementation of international control over key sectors of the military industry of EU countries
£ transfer of management of coal mining in France and Germany to a supranational body
£ creation of the European Atomic Energy Community
US economic assistance to Western European countries.
127. The period of implementation of the Marshall Plan falls on
1948 - 1951
128. The Treaty on European Union came into force with
£ 01/01/1991
£ 31.12.1995
129. The document establishing the functioning of the Treaty on European Union is considered
£ White Paper
Single European Act
£ Maastricht Agreement
£ NATO Treaty
130.The high level of technical equipment of Japanese production was achieved due to
High level of development of fundamental research
Borrowing scientific and technical achievements from abroad
Active purchase of foreign licenses
£ joint developments with partners in scientific and technical cooperation
131. The main institutions of the EU are
European Parliament
£ Single European ACT
£ EURATOM
132. Candidates for EU membership are
Slovakia
£ Belarus
Hungary
Estonia
133.The USA meets its needs for mineral raw materials through
£100% imported
Approximately 50% imports
£25% imports
Own resources
134. For Japan, “vital imports” are
£ food
Fuel and raw materials resources
£ labor
£ semiconductors and home appliances
£ foreign currency
135. For Japan, a “vital export” is
£ foreign currency
£ food
£ fuel and raw materials
£ labor
Semiconductors and home appliances
136. NAFTA is a free trade agreement between:
£ USA and Canada
£ US, Canada and EU
USA, Canada and Mexico
£ USA, Russia, Canada
137.Approximate amount (as a percentage of the world) of mineral reserves that Russia possesses
More than 20%
138.The approximate amount (as a percentage of the world) of mineral reserves possessed by the United States...
£ over 20%
139. The three economic centers of power in the world economy are considered...
140. The USA, EU and Japan have a share in world GDP... %
£ less than 40
£ approximately 30
141.Participation and role of the state in the economy of most developing countries
£ not much
Quite active
£ is absent altogether, since the main engine of economic development is foreign capital
142.Economic reforms in China at the present stage, which caused economic growth in the country, began in...
143. Most of China's population lives
£ in cities
In the countryside
£ abroad ("huaqiao")
144. Financing for the development of priority industries in China is provided by
£ state budget funds
£ off-budget funds
Foreign investment
£ private investors
145. Common features of most developing countries are
Deep socio-economic backwardness
Diversified economy with different forms of ownership
The influence of traditional institutions in society
High population growth rates
£specialization in MRI mainly in power generation
£ fairly developed market relations
£ strong dependence on the influx of resources from outside
146.The modern economic model for the development of the national economy of developing countries is characterized as
Import-substituting industrialization
Export-oriented model
£ convergence
£ liberalization
£ free trade
147. Share of developing countries in world GDP
Increases
£ decreases
£ remains the same
148. The share of developing countries in world GDP is... %
£ over 50
£ less than 20
£ approximately 10
149.Japan used the indicated model of economic development in relations with developing countries
Flying geese
£ flying flock
£ adaptation effect
150. Differentiation within developing states
Increasing
£ remains the same
£ decreases
151. Differentiation within developing countries is due to
Policies of developed countries
Development of NIS
£ rapid development of China
£ competition from Russia
152. OPEC countries export mainly
£ natural gas
£ electronics
153. Population growth in developing countries
Higher than in developed
£ approximately at the same level as developed countries
£ less than in developed countries due to high mortality
154. The population of developing countries mainly lives
£ in Latin America
£ in Africa
155. Relations between Russia and APEC:
Russia is a member of APEC;
£ Russia is not a member of APEC;
£ Russia plans to join APEC
156.The most developed integration group in the world is considered
157.As a result of the formation of the CIS, mutual economic ties between them
£ remained the same
Shrunk
£ increased
158. The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) was established within the framework of an integration association...
159. Forms of integration in accordance with the plans of the organizers of the EU provided for the creation
£ cooperation with Russia
Political Union
Economic and Monetary Union
Single (common) market for goods, services, capital, labor
£ military-political union
£ integration with the USA
Customs Union
160. The main forms of international economic integration are considered
Common Market
Customs Union
£ syndicate
£ international association
Free trade Area
Economic and Monetary Union
161. The Visegrad Four integration group includes
£ Bulgaria
Slovakia
£ Romania
Hungary
162.Candidates for accession to the EU from the republics of the former USSR are
£ Ukraine
Estonia
£ Belarus
163. The OECD was founded in...
164. Russia's relations with the OECD:
£ is not bound by bilateral agreements
£ is a member of the OECD
Not a member of the OECD
Bound by a bilateral agreement
£ is in a hostile relationship
165. The origins of the EU were unification
166. The ECSC included states
£ Spain
Benelux countries
France
Germany
167. The sequence of stages in the formation of the economic and monetary union of the EU countries
1: Free Trade Zone
2: Customs Union
3: "Common Market"
4: Economic and Monetary Union
168. Russia's external debt is in the range... billion dollars
£ less than 50
169. The greatest in the 90s. The 20th century saw a decline in mutual economic ties between Russia and...
£ industrialized countries
£ countries of Central and Eastern Europe
£ developing countries
Former republics of the USSR
170.The main component in Russian exports to Western European countries is currently
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Fuel and raw materials resources
£ machinery and equipment
£ agricultural products
171. Economic, scientific and technical relations between Russia and China are considered
£ little promising
Very promising
£ economically unviable
172.The main reasons for the sharp decline in Russia’s economic relations with other CIS countries are considered
£ reduction in the degree of interdependence of most union republics
£ national animosity
£ failure to deliver under intergovernmental agreements
The desire to export their products for hard currency to “far abroad” countries
Painful transition from a single centralized supply system within the USSR to market mechanisms of interaction
173.The main components in Russian exports to developed countries are
£ machinery and equipment
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Semi-finished products
Fuel and raw materials resources
£ agricultural products
174. The main advantages of Russia in the world are considered
Natural resources
£ scientific and technical potential
High educational level of the population
Nuclear weapon
£ developed economy
£ developed market infrastructure
175.WPPs in Russia, primarily at the end of the twentieth century, were focused on
OECD countries
£ CIS countries
Countries "far abroad"
£ CEE countries
£ developing countries
GDP per capita
Educational level of the population
£ military potential of the state
£ inflation
177. Russia’s place in the world according to the UN Human Development Index at the beginning of the 21st century
Between 60th and 80th place
£ in the top ten countries
£ between 10th and 20th place
£ between 20th and 40th place
£ between 40 and 60 place
178. Industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century
£ decreased slightly
£ increased slightly
£ decreased by 10%
Reduced by more than 60%
179. The reduction in industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century was associated with...
£ confrontation with the US
Severance of economic ties with the former republics of the USSR
Transition to market reforms
£ increased military tension
180. GDP per capita in Russia compares with the world average:
Below world average
£ above world average
£ is approximately equal to
181.The main components of the problem of Russia’s external debt are considered
Debt from developing countries of Russia itself
Russian debt to leading PRSs, commercial banks and a number of countries in Eastern Europe
Debts of the former USSR
£ servicing Russia's external debt
£ relationship with the London Club
182. The greatest demographic decline in Russia was observed in:
£ 20s of XX century.
£ 30s of XX century.
£ years of so-called Stalinist repressions
90s of XX century
The first years of the 21st century.
183. The greatest decline in GDP production (GNP) occurred in:
£ Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War
£ global economy during the Great Depression
£ USA in the 30s of the XX century.
£ countries of Western Europe in the 30s of the XX century.
Russia in 1992-1996
184. The basis of the international division of labor is the principle:
£ industry isolation
Territorial isolation
£ technical and technological community
£ natural division of labor
Comparative advantage
185. The formation and development of the world market is associated with:
£ protectionist policy
Deepening and expanding the international division of labor
Development of industrialization
Development of transport and communication systems
£autarky national economies
186. Internationalization of production is a process of economic relationships between countries based on:
£ exchange of finished products
£ differences in natural and climatic conditions
Specialization and cooperation of production
£ countries overcoming economic dependence
International movement of factors of production
187. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, countries specialize in the production of products based on comparison:
£ production costs
Costs of production factors
£ marginal utilities of goods exchanged
£ labor costs
Abundance or shortage of certain factors of production
188. The Leontief paradox is that the United States should be considered as a country:
£ capital surplus
Labor surplus
£ with limited natural resources
£ with limited labor resources
£ with limited capital
189. Net exports mean:.
£ the difference between revenue from exports of products and the costs of their production
Balance of foreign trade turnover
£ share of exports in total production
£ share of imports in the total volume of consumed products within the country
Difference between export and import volumes
190. Re-export means:
£ import into the country of products produced abroad with the help of national capital
£ export from the country of products produced with the help of foreign capital
Export of products that were previously imported
£ export of finished products that contain imported components
Export of products previously imported into the country
191. Foreign trade turnover is determined:
£ by subtracting exports from GDP
£ by adding exports to GDP
By summing the values of exports and imports
Current account for goods and services
£ by subtracting the import value from the volume of exports
192. Currently, world trade is dominated by:
£ food products
Manufacturing products
£ patents and licenses
£ "experience and knowledge", engineering services
193. The degree of openness of the national economy is determined by:
£ country's share of world trade
Volume of exports per capita
£ share of national production in world production
Share of exports in national production
£ shares of national production in international exchange
194. The policy of protectionism is aimed at:
£ expansion of imports from abroad
Protection of domestic production from foreign competitors
£ reduction in domestic exports
£ restrictions on the import of foreign capital
Creating barriers to imports of goods and ensuring the influx of foreign capital
195.The policy of foreign economic liberalism (free trade) is pursued by the following countries:
Those who have achieved the greatest success in their development
£ with a low level of industrialization of the economy
£ agro-industrial
£ gained political independence
Not afraid of flooding the domestic market with imported goods
196. Transnational corporations are characterized by:
£ limitation of its activities within the framework of the national economy
£ multinational capital
International economic activities
National in origin capital and international nature of its activities
£ multinational capital and the international nature of its activities
197. Multinational corporations are characterized by:
£ national origin of their capital
Multinational capital
£ international nature of activity and national origin of capital
£ restrictions in the field of international economic relations
International nature of economic activity
198. The essence of the export of capital is:
£ export of value for the purpose of its sale and appropriation of profits in
Exporting value to produce new value and profit
Overcoming protectionist barriers preventing the export of goods to the country
£ advance of cost for the purpose of obtaining rent
£ advance cost to recover production costs
199. Foreign direct investments are considered to be those that provide their owner with:
£ appropriation of profit
Establishing control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ receiving interest on the loan provided
£ obtaining a share of the capital of a foreign enterprise that does not provide control over the activities of the enterprise
Creating your own company abroad
200. Portfolio foreign investments:
£ investment of capital ensuring the establishment of control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
Investment of capital that does not allow establishing control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ providing credit to a native partner
Acquisition of a small part of the shares of a foreign enterprise
£ purchase of a controlling stake in a native enterprise
201. Loan form of capital export:
Assumes repayment and payment of imported capital
£ ensures ownership of a controlling stake in the enterprise
Involves providing a loan and receiving interest on it
£ gives the right to own a certain share of the capital of the enterprise
£ is characterized by the gratuitous transfer of capital
202.On the eve of the First World War, the first place in the export of capital was occupied by:
Great Britain
£ France
£ Belgium
£ Netherlands
203. In the middle of the 20th century. The first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ UK
£ France
£ Germany
204. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. The first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ Germany
£ oil-producing countries of the Middle East
£ UK
205. Until the middle of the 20th century. The main importers of capital were:
£ developed capitalist countries
£ socialist countries
£ socialist countries of Europe
£ EEC countries
Developing countries
206. At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. The main recipient countries of capital were:
£ developing countries
£ countries that have embarked on the path of industrial development
£ socialist countries
Developed capitalist countries
£ post-socialist countries
207. Reinvestment of foreign capital means:
£ export of part of the profit to the capital exporting country and its investment
Investing a certain share of profits on foreign capital in a given country
£use of profits to repay the debt of a foreign investor
£ export of all profits earned on foreign capital
Repeated investments from part of the income received on previously invested capital
208. International labor migration is influenced by:
Demographic situation in the country
High unemployment rate within the country
Differences in pay levels
£ excess capital within the country
£ low economic growth
209. The departure of more than 50 thousand scientists and specialists from Russia to the United States was caused by:
£ lack of democratic freedoms in Russia
£ reluctance to live in our country
Easing US immigration policy towards former socialist countries
Lack of funding for R&D and higher education in Russia, low wages
The policy of “human rights” and economic openness
210 The $1 trillion "brain drain" from Russia to the US means that:
Exhausted by “reforms,” Russia acted as an intellectual donor
The rich US acted as an intellectual "vampire"
The flight of “human capital” from Russia has become the most profitable item for the United States in relations with our country
£ Russia received big profits
£ Russia has strengthened its scientific and technical potential
211.Russia’s migration policy in the modern transformation period should be based primarily on:
Ensuring scientific, technical and economic security
£ ensuring openness of the economy
212.Russia’s migration policy in the modern transformation period should be based primarily on:
Priority of national interests
£ compliance with international human rights standards
£ the need for priority inclusion of the country in the process of globalization
Preserving and enhancing the potential of human capital
£need to increase emigration from Russia
213. Only economic integration is characterized by:
£ expansion of the international division of labor
£ growth in mutual trade
The presence of a unified mechanism for regulating social and economic relations
£ internationalization of production
Closedness of the integration block
214. The final stage of economic integration is:
£ refusal from export and import quotas
£ refusal to license export supplies
£ free movement of production factors within one economic space
Creation of a political-economic union of countries
Formation of a monetary union of countries
215.The softening of US immigration policy towards post-socialist countries was aimed at:
£ her humanization
£ strengthening compliance with international human rights standards
Capitalizing on the influx of human capital
£ improving the situation of workers in Russia
Increasing your own intellectual potential
216.Gold parity:
Based on the gold content of the monetary unit
£ represents a gold coin
£ expressed in paper currency
£ is the price scale
This is the ratio of national currencies based on their gold content
217. Currency parity expresses:
£ purchasing power of the monetary unit
£ exchange rate of the national currency
£ weight amount of gold contained in a monetary unit
The relationship between national currencies established by law
The ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content and is adequate to gold parity
218. The exchange rate is characterized by:
The ratio of national currencies, determined by their purchasing power
£ ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content
£ the ratio of national currencies established by a strong-willed decision
Purchasing power of one currency relative to another
219. The currency cross rate is determined based on:
£ gold content of foreign currency
£ gold parity of other two currencies
Exchange rates of two other countries
Purchasing power ratios of the three countries' currencies
£ currency parity
220. Currency arbitrage involves:
£ protection of the currency parity of the country's currency
£ protection of the exchange rate of the country's currency
Operations with the aim of making a profit as a result of different cross-rate quotes of the same currency
£ speculative transactions based on the forward rate
Speculative transactions based on cross rates
221. A foreign exchange transaction is called a spot rate if:
£ there is a transaction within the framework of a fixed-term contract
£ the deal is medium-term
The transaction is carried out in accordance with the current exchange rate
£ the transaction is carried out in accordance with the exchange rate established for a certain date in the future
The operation is based on cash (cash) transactions
222. The forward rate provides for:
A transaction made on the basis of a derivatives contract
Agreeing on a rate for a specific date in the future
£ deal based on the current rate
£ at spot rate
£ transaction not related to hedging or speculation
The number of national monetary units corresponding to foreign currency
£ number of foreign monetary units corresponding to the national currency
£ by the ratio of the exchange rate of two other currencies
£ at gold parity
£ currency parity
224. Reverse currency quotation is based on the expression:
£ amount of national currency in a foreign currency unit
Quantities of monetary units of foreign currency in national currency
£ of one currency through the ratio of rates of two other currencies
£ gold content in foreign currency
£ currency parity
225. Demonetization of gold was carried out by the decision:
£ Bretton Woods Conference
Kingston (Jamaica) Conference
£ Genoa Conference
US decision in 1971
£ decision of Russia in 1897
226. A real, and not just a countable, international monetary unit is (was)
£ transferable ruble
227. To determine the “weight” of each national currency in the currency “basket”, data on:
£ per capita income
£ national wealth
Share of countries in world exports
GDP value
Share of countries in world foreign exchange reserves
228. Trade balance:
Part of the balance of payments
Expresses the relationship between exports and imports of goods and services
£ includes balance of payments
£ has no relation to the balance of payments
£ does not include re-export
229. Balance of payments:
£ is part of the trade balance
Includes trade balance
£ does not include income and expenses from foreign exchange transactions
£ is not associated with the interbank foreign exchange market
Represents a report on the entire set of international transactions
230. The weakening of the national currency and the depreciation of its exchange rate is caused by:
£ positive balance of payments
£ positive trade balance
Negative trade balance
£ lower taxation level
Negative balance of payments
231.The strengthening of the national currency and the increase in its exchange rate are associated with:
£ negative trade balance
Positive trade balance
£ negative balance of payments
Positive balance of payments
£ tax increases
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1 . The essence of the concept of “World Economy”.
WORLD ECONOMY - the economy of all countries of the world community, considered taking into account intercountry economic relations and interactions. This is a set of national economies united by various types of world economic ides.
World economics as a science (or academic discipline) is part of the theory of a market economy that studies the patterns of economic interaction between different states in the field of international exchange of goods and services, the movement of factors of production relations.
The world economy is a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which, in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production, goods, services, and capital circulate freely.
World economy-- a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which, in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production, goods, services, and capital circulate freely.
The characteristic features of the modern world economy are as follows:
* development of international movement of production factors, primarily in the forms of export and import of capital, labor and technology;
* growth on this basis of international forms of production in enterprises located in several countries, primarily within transnational corporations;
* economic policy of states, providing support for the international movement of goods and factors of production on a bilateral and multilateral basis;
* the emergence of an open economy within many states and interstate associations.
2. Natural resource potential of the world economy
Natural resources are the primary source, the starting point of the economy of all countries at all stages of their development. Natural resources are of two types: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources can be used periodically and in an amount that does not deplete their availability for future consumption. Renewable natural resources include land, sea, rivers, solar heat and energy, etc. Forests, wildlife and fisheries can also be examples of renewable resources. If logging and fishing are carried out moderately and rationally, then nature itself will take care of their reproduction. Non-renewable resources include those that are used once and are not reproduced by nature itself. Such resources include coal, oil, gas, etc.
Natural resources have two important economic dimensions - stock and flow. The amount of stock of each resource is determined by the nature and intensity of previous use. Flows of natural resources depend on the level of their annual consumption. Human needs determine this flow, and depending on them, natural resources can be consumed quickly, slowly, or not used at all.
Labor force as an active part of the population-- the second important component. The higher its share in the population, the greater the productive capabilities of the national economy.
The size of the employed (active) labor force depends on many economic, social and demographic factors. In terms of the share of employed people, developing countries are significantly inferior to developed countries, and the number of hours worked per week is much higher in developing countries.
Rapid population growth in developing countries and the low share of its active population significantly slow down, even reduce, the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, which dooms ongoing efforts at economic development to failure. All attempts to solve the problems of economic growth in developing countries on their own are doomed to failure. A solution to the issue is possible only within the framework of the global economy, in which each country will find its own writing in the MRI system.
What population size should be considered optimal from an economic point of view and what are the criteria for such optimality? Since per capita income depends on population size, the optimal amount can be considered to be the amount that maximizes per capita income .
Labor resources and population movements in general are concerned with demography- a science that, based on social, economic, biological, geographical factors, examines the patterns of events in the structure, dynamics, as well as the placement and movement of the population. On the basis of this, population policy is developed, forecast estimates are made of changes in the population of the country, region and within the world economy as a whole.
An integral part of demographic processes in the world economy are urbanization processes . Urbanization is a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process that occurs on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the share of the urban population in the country, region, and world.
Given a fixed level of technology, the amount of land and capital, a too small population does not provide adequate space either for the maximum effect of the division of labor, or for the full realization of the economies of scale in the production of national industry.
Problems of big cities: significant geographic disparity between jobs and labor in the suburbs and the city center, which requires the creation of an efficient transport system; environmental pollution.
Fossil resources. Their deposits have varying degrees of exploration and varying degrees of assessment accuracy. In foreign countries, the following classification is used. Based on the degree of exploration, explored reserves are divided into reliable and probable. There is also a possible inventory category. In general, the knowledge of the subsoil is still insufficient. The share of reliable reserves for some types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves. Fossil reserves vary by country.
The influence of the state’s natural resource potential on the development of the national economy and its integration into the international economic system.
To understand this issue, you need to get acquainted with the essence of the so-called . "Dutch syndrome". Many countries rich in raw materials are subject to its influence, incl. and Russia. The essence "Dutch syndrome" is that the presence of a large number of various mineral resources does not at all guarantee a country’s prosperity, and under certain conditions even harms its economy, and vice versa. As a rule, a stable influx of export earnings from the fuel and energy complex or other raw materials industries (sectors) leads to the fact that the country ceases to pay attention to the development of its manufacturing industry, preferring to purchase imported equipment and finished products.
In Russia, this disease began to develop back in the 70s. This was due to a jump in oil prices and the discovery of new oil fields in Western Siberia (Samotlor and others). Soviet industry during this period produced predominantly uncompetitive products. In addition, the USSR did not have export targets and was in contact with the outside world exclusively through the supply of raw materials and fuel. High-tech equipment was purchased with export proceeds, and most of it was not accepted by the economy, because The system that existed at that time was not focused on innovation. Oddly enough, radical reforms only worsened the situation. Reformers, guided by the Darwinian principle of natural selection (everything that is viable should survive, and what is not viable will die), pushed the domestic economy not towards renewal, but towards primitivization. It began to focus even more on fuel and raw materials exports.
An example of the opposite approach is the experience of Western Europe, Japan, the USA and the newly industrialized countries (NICs). The first three, faced with a fuel and raw material crisis in the 70s, concentrated on developing energy-saving technologies and reduced energy consumption by 30% over 30 years. The latter (NIS) took advantage of the transfer of labor-intensive production from developed countries to developing countries that began in the 60s and began to fill a niche in the market for consumer goods and household appliances.
The main difference between the experience of the commodity-producing countries of Southeast Asia and Russia is that they, albeit twenty years late, still focused on the development of the manufacturing industry.
So you can do conclusion, that the presence of mineral resources is an important condition for the country’s integration into the IEO, however, if the emphasis is placed only on them, this inevitably leads to a weakening of the country’s position in terms of the competitiveness of its exports, because stable income can only be ensured export of manufacturing products . The experience of the countries of Southeast Asia shows that economic success can also be associated with the quality of the workforce. Confucianism left these countries with a legacy of the most important qualities: discipline, learning ability, hard work, and patriotism.
3. Classification of countries by level of socio-economic development
Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of their level of development and socio-economic organization of production and the complex structure of the world economy, the center and periphery are quite clearly visible.
The center is a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 states), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports.
The periphery consists mainly of developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be identified:
* multistructured nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations and non-economic levers of economic organization;
* low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
* raw material specialization.
NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES - a group of developing countries that, by the end of the 20th century, had reached significant economic growth, approaching economically highly developed countries in basic socio-economic indicators, for example Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, etc.
A country's activity in global trade is measured using indicators such as:
A) export quota, i.e. the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP/GNP; at the industry level - this is the share of all goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume;
b) import quota- an indicator characterizing the volume of imports of a certain product, established in accordance with the needs for it and the volume of its own production. It is the ratio of a given country's gross imports to its GDP. It shows what portion imports make up of GDP;
V) foreign trade quota is the ratio of the value of a country's foreign trade turnover to the volume of its GDP. It shows the total volume of foreign trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, i.e. serves to measure the level of development of foreign economic relations of a given country.
b) export structure, those. ratio or specific gravity of exported goods by type and degree of processing. The structure of exports allows us to highlight the raw materials or machine-technical orientation of exports, the country’s role in international industry specialization;
V) import structure, the ratio of the volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished final products. This indicator most clearly shows the dependence of the country’s economy on the foreign market and the level of development of sectors of the national economy;
d) the comparative ratio of the country’s share in world GDP/GNP production and its share in world trade. So, if a country’s share in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in world trade in this product is 1-2%, then this means that the goods produced do not meet the world level of quality as a consequence of the low development of this industry.
4. International division of labor and its significance for the development of the world economy
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR is the specialization of countries in the production of certain types of goods, for the production of which the country has cheaper resources and preferable conditions in comparison with other countries. With such specialization, the needs of countries are satisfied not only by their own production, but also through international trade. This is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain goods and services for the purpose of their sale in other countries.
MRT is a system or way of organizing interdependent production, in which enterprises from different countries specialize in the production of certain goods and services and then exchange them.
The first factor relates to natural benefits. These include reserves of natural resources and specific climatic conditions.
Other factors relate to the benefits acquired. Thus, an excess of machinery and equipment relative to other resources stimulates specialization in the production of capital-intensive products. Countries that invest heavily in education and knowledge production gain a comparative advantage in the production of high-tech and knowledge-intensive products.
The main motivation for MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of social and economic differences, is their desire to obtain economic benefits.
Intra-industry, which expresses the concentration of efforts of enterprises from different countries belonging to a certain industry on the production of certain items and the exchange of these items between them.
Within its framework, it is necessary to distinguish between single-species, multi-species and all-species subject intra-industry specialization.
Intersectoral, which means the division of labor between different sectors of the same type of production (industry, agriculture, etc.).
Intergeneric, this is the division of labor between types of production - industry and agriculture, industry and construction, etc. National economic I in its economic content it corresponds to the interregional form of division of labor within the country and represents the division of activities between countries on the scale of their complete national economies.
5.The process of internationalization of the modern world economy
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY - formation and development of economic ties with other countries; processes of economic convergence, manifested in the growth of international trade and other forms of international economic cooperation, the growth of intercountry financial flows, and labor migration. There is a distinction between the internationalization of production, capital, trade, and science. One of the important forms of economic internationalization is the emergence and development of transnational corporations. The economic basis of the modern world economy is the internationalization of production - the development of such organizational and economic forms that connect the production of some countries with the consumption of its results in others.
Internationalization of business activities-- this is the strengthening of the interconnection and interdependence of the economies of individual countries, the influence of international economic relations on national economies, the participation of countries in the world economy.
In its development, the internationalization of the economy has passed series of stages. Initially, it represented international economic cooperation: it affected, first of all, the sphere of circulation and was associated with the emergence of international trade (late 18th - early 20th centuries). At the end of the 19th century, international capital movements gained momentum. International economic cooperation means the development of sustainable economic ties between countries and peoples, the expansion of the reproduction process beyond national borders.
The next stage was international economic integration, objectively determined by the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of capital, the global nature of scientific and technological progress and the increasing degree of openness of national economies and freedom of trade.Integration translated from Latin (integratio) means the connection of individual parts into a common, whole, unified.
International economic integration-- rapprochement and mutual adaptation of national economies, their inclusion in a single reproduction process on an international scale. This is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to the convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinatedly regulated by interstate bodies.
Economic integration, in particular, is expressed in :
Cooperation between national economies of different countries and their complete or partial unification;
Elimination of barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital, and labor between these countries;
Bringing together the markets of each individual country with the aim of forming one single (common) market;
Blurring differences between economic entities belonging to different states;
The absence of one form or another of discrimination against foreign partners in each national economy, etc.
By the end XX V. Almost all civilized countries participate in various international economic organizations. For example, by 1996, 183 countries were members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 180 countries were members of the World Bank (WB), about 150 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), and over 100 countries are members of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs. It is important to note that international law does not prevent the simultaneous participation of any country in several international economic organizations.
Although almost all states of the globe take part in the global integration process, the degree of participation of each of them in this process is not the same. Some of them are at the lowest stages of economic integration, others, having reached the highest limits of international economic relations today, are expanding interstate cooperation to the level of military and political spheres.
The prerequisites for integration are as follows:
*Proximity of the levels of economic development and degree of market maturity of the integrating countries
*The geographical proximity of the integrating countries, the presence in most cases of a common border and historically established economic ties.
*The commonality of economic and other problems facing countries in the field of development, financing, economic regulation, political cooperation, etc.
*Demonstration effect.
*"Domino effect".
Integration goals
*Taking advantage of economies of scale .
*Creating a favorable foreign policy environment .
*Solving trade policy problems.
*Promoting structural adjustment economy .
*Support for young national industries .
Integration stages
On the first level , when countries are just taking the first steps towards mutual rapprochement, agreements are concluded between them preferential trade agreements (Table 12.1). Such agreements can be signed either on a bilateral basis between individual states, or between an already existing integration grouping and an individual country or group of countries. In accordance with them, countries provide more favorable treatment to each other than they provide to third countries.
On the second level integration countries are moving towards creationfree trade zones , providing for not a simple reduction, but a complete abolition of customs tariffs in mutual trade while maintaining national customs tariffs in relations with third countries.
Third level integration is related to education customs union (TS)-- the agreed abolition by the group of national customs tariffs and the introduction of a common customs tariff and a unified system of non-tariff regulation of trade in relation to third countries. The Customs Union provides for duty-free intra-integration trade in goods and services and complete freedom of their movement within the region. Typically, a customs union requires the creation of a more developed system of interstate bodies coordinating the implementation of a coordinated foreign trade policy. Most often, they take the form of periodic meetings of ministers heading the relevant departments, which in their work rely on a permanent interstate secretariat.
When the integration process reaches fourth level - common market (OR) -- integrating countries agree on freedom of movement not only of goods and services, but also of factors of production - capital and labor.
Finally, on the fifth, at the highest level, integration turns into economic union (ES), which, along with a common customs tariff and freedom of movement of goods and factors of production, also provides for the coordination of macroeconomic policies and the unification of legislation in key areas - foreign exchange, budgetary, monetary. At this stage, there is a need for bodies endowed not only with the ability to coordinate actions and monitor economic development, but also to make operational decisions on behalf of the group as a whole. Governments consistently renounce some of their functions and thereby cede part of state sovereignty in favor of supranational bodies. Such interstate bodies with supranational functions are vested with the right to make decisions on issues relating to the organization without coordination with the governments of member countries. Within the EU, this is the EU Commission.
It is fundamentally possible for the existence and sixth level integration --political union (PU) , which would provide for the transfer by national governments of most of their functions in relations with third countries to supranational bodies.
9.Globalization of the world economy
GLOBALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY - strengthening of interconnections, interactions and interdependence of economies, economic systems of different countries of the world; The globalization of the world economy can also be characterized as increased interdependence and mutual influence of various spheres and processes of the world economy, expressed in the gradual transformation of the world economy into a single market for goods, services, capital, labor and knowledge.
The process of globalization covers different areas of the world economy, namely:
· external, international, global trade in goods, services, technologies, intellectual property;
· international movement of factors of production (labor, capital, information);
· international financial, credit and currency transactions (gratuitous financing and assistance, loans and borrowings from subjects of international economic relations, transactions with securities, special financial mechanisms and instruments, transactions with currency);
· production, scientific, technical, technological, engineering and information cooperation.
Economic globalization is the process of accumulation of structural changes and the gradual formation of an organically integral world economy
The main prerequisites (driving forces) determining the process of globalization:
1. Production, scientific, technical and technological:
· sharp increase in the scale of production;
· rapid dissemination of knowledge as a result of scientific or other types of intellectual exchange;
2. Organizational:
· international forms of production and economic activity (TNC): organizational forms, the scope of which extends beyond national borders, acquire an international character, contributing to the formation of a single market space;
· entry of non-governmental organizations to the multinational or global level. International organizations such as the UN, IMF, World Bank, WTO, etc. began to play a new global role;
3. Economic:
· introduction by international economic organizations of uniform criteria for macroeconomic policy, unification of requirements for tax, regional, agricultural, antimonopoly policies, employment policies, etc.;
· increasing tendency towards unification and standardization. 4. Informational:
· radical change in the means of business communication, exchange of industrial, scientific, technical, economic, financial information
· the formation of systems that make it possible to manage production located in different countries from one center, creating opportunities for prompt, timely and effective solution of production, scientific, technical, and commercial problems no worse than within individual countries.
· 5. Political:
· weakening the rigidity of state borders, facilitating freedom of movement of citizens, goods and services, capital;
· the end of the Cold War, overcoming political differences between East and West.
6. Social and cultural:
· weakening the role of habits and traditions, social ties and customs, overcoming national limitations, which increases the mobility of people in territorial, spiritual and psychological terms, and promotes international migration;
· manifestation of the tendency to form globalized “homogeneous” media, art, and popular culture.
· overcoming boundaries in education through the development of distance learning;
Globalization processes are most often welcomed in developed countries and cause serious concerns in the developing world. The degree of positive impact of globalization processes on the economy of individual countries depends on the place they occupy in the world economy; in fact, the bulk of the benefits go to rich countries or individuals.
Unfair distribution of benefits from globalization creates the threat of conflicts at the regional, national and international levels.
Problems that could potentially cause negative consequences from globalization processes in all countries include:
Deindustrialization of the economy,
Attempts to undermine national sovereignty, i.e. the transfer of control over the economies of individual countries from sovereign governments to other hands, including the most powerful states, multinational or global corporations and international organizations.
Rising unemployment.
Potential global instability due to the interdependence of national economies at the global level.
10. Subjects of world economic relations
The subjects of world economic relations are private (individuals) persons and organizations (legal entities) engaged in international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of the national economy, subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents are economic entities permanently located on the territory of a given country, regardless of their nationality (state) affiliation.
Non-residents - business entities permanently located on the territory of a foreign state, even if they are citizens of a given country, but permanently reside abroad, or branches of business units of a given country located outside its borders.
In addition to organizations directly involved in foreign economic activity, supranational international institutions are beginning to play an increasingly active role in the world economy. They are represented by international economic institutions engaged in organizing and coordinating world economic relations. The tasks of these organizations are to create “rules of the game” for the normal functioning of the world economy and control over the practical implementation of world economic relations.
The priority of international law in operations on the world market does not mean the complete internationalization of the state’s foreign economic activities and the replacement of its foreign economic institutions with the activities of international economic organizations.
The duty of any state is to defend national economic interests, including through foreign economic activity. Therefore, in modern conditions, the state itself determines its foreign economic policy. To implement it, each country develops its own national legislation on foreign economic activity. For example, for Russia, the fundamental laws are “On State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities”), “On Foreign Investments in the Territory of the Russian Federation”, etc. .
Direct regulation of foreign economic activity in each country is carried out by special institutions. In Russia, such institutions include: the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the Ministry for Cooperation with the CIS, the Customs Committee, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Vneshtorgbank, etc.
These government organizations register foreign institutional units in the country, regulate exports and imports through the issuance of licenses, quotas and the establishment of customs tariffs, facilitate the signing of interstate agreements, and the promotion of domestic residents into economic unions and into the world economy as a whole.
States that are participants in the world economic process, by organizing and regulating international economic relations directly within the country, can influence world economic relations as a whole. This kind of influence is realized in many ways, primarily by using the right of participants in one or another international economic organization to develop and adjust the rules of the intra-Union “game”.
In addition, it should be noted that states participating in the global economic process, especially the most economically developed and rich, have both direct and indirect opportunities to influence world economic relations, regulating them in their national interests.
Direct regulator is protectionism, with the help of which a particular state or union, in its own interests, represents advantages in the export and import of goods, services and capital.
Indirect regulation States can carry out global economic relations through their private firms (especially banks) and transnational companies (TNCs).
Thus, modern states, organizing their national economies for broad participation in the world economic process, simultaneously actively organize and regulate the entire complex of world economic relations. This process allows countries not only to defend their economic interests in the international arena, but at the same time to improve and develop the world economy and international economic relations.
11.Classical theories of world trade.
The mercantilists essentially proposed the enrichment of some countries at the expense of others, but their merit lies in the fact that they were the first to draw attention to the problems of foreign trade, emphasized its importance for the economic development of countries, described and justified a certain ratio of costs for exports and imports, i.e. . laid the foundations for the balance of payments.
Adam Smith noted that the welfare of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold it accumulates as on its ability to produce final goods and leave. He also developed the first classical theory of foreign trade - theory of absolutesbenefits.
ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE - the ability of a state, region, company, arising as a result of geographical location, successful location, resource potential, other favorable conditions, to produce goods with minimal production and distribution costs in comparison with other countries, regions, companies producing the same or similar goods. Thanks to this advantage, it is possible to sell your product on the market at a lower price and beat your competitors. A. Smith argued that the greatest benefits will be received by those countries that actively participate in the international division of the pile. A country that has certain advantages in the production of a product must specialize in its production for delivery to other countries
Absolute Advantage Theory -- countries export those goods that they produce at lower costs (in which they have an absolute advantage in producing) and import those goods that other countries produce at lower costs [in which their trading partners have an absolute advantage in producing].
This statement of A. Smith was supplemented by David Ricardo, creating theory of comparative benefits.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES - lower costs of one manufacturer compared to the costs of another, which makes it possible to divide production between them in favor of the first manufacturer to obtain greater returns and benefits. Comparative advantages are most characteristic of different countries and are manifested in international trade.
Theorycomparativebenefits -- Since a country's producers specialize in the production of those goods that they can produce at relatively lower costs compared to other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries regardless of whether production in one is absolutely more efficient than in the other.
Ricardo proved that foreign trade brings additional benefits even to countries with highly efficient economies.
in the 20-30s of our century to the creation Heckscher's theories -Olina.
Heckscher-Ohlin theorem -- each country exports those factor-intensive goods for the production of which it has relatively abundant factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it has a relative shortage of factors of production.
In this theory, the factors determining the international division of labor are already associated not only with the natural conditions of production in the country, but with the realities that arose in the process of development of production. The theory proceeded from the fact that the historical and natural conditions of development of individual countries predetermined unevenness in the provision of labor resources and capital. Therefore different factor intensity and factor saturation determines the country's specialization in the production of certain goods.
Factor intensity is the ratio of the costs of various factors of production for the production of a particular product
Factor saturation- is the relative endowment of a country with factors of production .
Factor price equalization theorem(Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem) - international trade leads to equalization of absolute and relative prices for homogeneous factors of production in trading countries
In 1947, the American economist Vasily Leontiev, studying the structure of US exports and imports, discovered that more labor-intensive goods were exported, and capital-intensive goods were imported. V. Leontiev's research showed the opposite, and its result became known as Leontief paradox.
Leontief's paradox-- the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of production factors is not confirmed in practice: labor-abundant countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-surplus countries export labor-intensive products.
An attempt to take into account the influence of the scientific and technological revolution in international trade led to the creation neo-technological theories foreign trade. Their supporters try to explain the emergence of foreign trade relations not by the provision of production factors, as the neoclassics did, but by the costs of research and development, the level of average wages and the share of skilled labor. This school explains the emergence of advantages by a monopoly on individual discoveries and new technologies, which makes it possible to dominate both the production of these goods and their sale on the world market until these technologies are mastered by other countries.
technology gap theory, the foundations of which were laid by the English economist M. Posner in the early 60s. Posner suggested that if one of the developed countries, as a result of some discovery, has a fundamentally new technology or a new product, then this product will be in demand even in countries that have the same resource availability. Then, as a result of the advantageous position of one country, a technological gap arises between countries.
This model was developed by another American economist, Raymond Vernon, who in 1966 published an article describing a product life cycle model, which can be considered both as an independent theory of international trade and as a theory developing the theory of comparative endowment of production factors. But unlike her, she explores the comparative advantage of countries not statically, but dynamically.
International trade is based on differences in the relative prices of goods, which arise due to differences in the endowment of countries with specific factors of production, with factors specific to the export sector developing, and factors specific to the import-competing sector declining.
Theory of the firm associated with the strengthening of the role of individual firms and corporations in international trade. IN Ultimately, it is not the nation that always receives comparative advantage, but the individual firm that exports the product. During the research, it turned out that technologically complex products are created by a separate company based on the needs and demand existing within the country. Only after expanding production and saturating the domestic market can a company enter the foreign market. But in order to sell your products, it is necessary to find a buyer country whose demand structure on the domestic market would be as close as possible to the demand structure of the exporting country. This explains the possibility of carrying out trade transactions between countries at the same level of economic development, in particular between developed industrial countries. This position was first substantiated by the American economist E. Linder.
A peculiar generalization of the modern development of theories of foreign trade is theory of international competitiveness of a nation, developed by the American researcher M. Porter. He concluded that the place of each country and its specific producers in the world market depends on four main conditions: the quantity and quality of various factors of production, demand conditions in the domestic market, the presence of related and service industries, the strategy of the firm and internal competition.
12. Modern theories of international trade
All theories of international trade in one way or another pay attention to the formation of equilibrium prices in the world market and the distribution of income.
Neoclassical theories considered the problem of income as one of the key ones. Theory Heckscher - Olina argued that owners of relatively abundant factors of production receive additional profits from foreign trade, while owners of relatively insufficient factors lose.
Theory of specific factors of production substantiates the position on the growth of income of the owner of a specific factor used in export production, and, accordingly, on the reduction in income of the owners of a specific factor used in industries. competing with imports.
In the process of trade between countries, prices for goods sold and purchased may change. How will the income of owners of factors of production change in this case? The answer to this question was given in a study by American economists P. Samuelson and F. Stolper. They proposed that a single country produces two types of goods: one is labor-intensive and the other requires large amounts of land to produce.
Stolper-Samuelson theorem - As a result of rising prices on the world market, prices for a production factor used relatively more intensively in the production of the first good rise, and prices for a production factor used relatively intensively in the second production decrease. Moreover, as a rule, the increase or decrease in the price of production factors occurs to a greater extent than the change in product prices.
English economist T.M. Rybchinsky drew attention to the fact that the rapid development of some industries often leads to a reduction in production in others. In his work, he proceeded from the same conditions as Stolper and Samuelson, except for one thing: he considered the prices of goods unchanged.
Rybczynski's theorem-- an increasing supply of one of the factors of production leads to a disproportionately larger percentage increase in production and income in the industry for which this factor is used relatively more intensively, and to a decrease in production and income in the industry in which this factor is used relatively less intensively. From the point of view of international trade, Rybczynski's theorem states that the expansion of export production due to an increase in the supply of a relatively intensive factor will lead to a contraction of other industries, which will force the country to increase imports of goods that are in short supply. Increasing the supply of factors for the development of other industries will accelerate their development and reduce imports.
The distribution of benefits from foreign trade among individual countries depends largely on how domestic prices change under the influence of foreign trade. Of the two countries, the country where prices have changed more usually wins. This is the so called benefit sharing rule, which says that the benefits of foreign trade are distributed in direct proportion to changes in prices in both countries.
13. Supply and demand in international trade
In order for a country to trade on the world market, it must have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, currency or other means of payment for imports, as well as developed foreign trade infrastructure-- vehicles, warehouses, communications, etc. Settlements for foreign trade transactions are made by banking organizations, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo.
Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country Export- this is the sale and export of goods abroad, import -- This is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference in value estimates of exports and imports forms trade balance, and the sum of their estimates is foreign trade turnover.
At the lowest level of the market There is trade in ferrous metallurgy products, construction materials, textiles, clothing, footwear and other light industry products. On the Middle level They trade in machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, basic chemicals and woodworking products. On the highest level Aerospace equipment, automated office equipment, information technology, electronics, pharmaceutical products, precision and measuring instruments, and electrical equipment are sold. The last level markets are the most promising and are developing at a much faster pace than other markets.
High-quality goods are always more expensive and are available only to those countries with high per capita incomes. Lower quality goods are purchased by countries with low per capita incomes. This predetermines that countries with the same incomes have approximately the same structure of demand for finished products, and the matching demand predetermines the most intensive exchange of finished goods between these countries.
14. Types of foreign trade policy
Foreign trade policy
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal government intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand.
Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through the use of tariff and non-tariff trade policy instruments. This is the theory and practice of regulating foreign trade, aimed at protecting subjects of the national economy from foreign competition.
The development of protectionist trends allows us to highlight several forms of protectionism:
selective - directed against individual countries or individual goods;
sectoral - protects certain sectors, primarily agriculture, within the framework of agricultural protectionism;
collective - carried out by associations of countries in relation to countries that are not members of them;
hidden - carried out by methods of internal economic policy.
Protectionism as a theory of foreign economic behavior has become established in XIX V. in competition with free trade (the theory and practice of free trade). Supporters of protectionism especially harshly criticized the results of free trade between countries with different levels of economic development. It was believed that developed countries were primarily interested in free trade, but it prevented relatively backward states from creating national industries.
In a developing national economy, protectionist measures are necessary For protecting only new industries that have arisen as a result of scientific and technological progress from competition from efficient foreign firms operating on the world market for quite a long time. It was under the protection of protectionism that the formation and development of the national economies of modern developed countries took place.
During periods of serious aggravation of relations between states and increased international tension, protectionist measures are used to maintain the security of the state, which is facilitated by the production on its territory of all necessary, vital products.
Despite the clearly positive impact of protectionist measures on the development of the national economy and international trade, this method of regulating foreign trade relations also has its opponents. As a rule, they distinguish the following the case against protectionism.
protectionism is not beneficial from the point of view of national production, because it destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges, and entails sclerosis of the economy;
he inflicts damage to consumer interests, because Under customs bans, sales prices for protected goods are rising. The consumer suffers from this;
he is a threat to international peace because... fuels interethnic rivalry, weakens the bonds of interdependence between countries, the fruitful atmosphere of MRI and economic cooperation
There is a certain illogicality inherent in protectionism - in pursuit of the goal of achieving a positive trade balance, protectionism restrains import operations, and international partners begin to do the same, as a result of which the volume of export operations is curtailed. This does not lead to a positive balance, but to an imbalance.
under conditions of protectionism sectors of the national economy protected by its barriers lose incentives for development, since the mechanisms of competition fade, and the desire for progress and innovation is destroyed by the ability to maintain achieved income and monopoly privileges.
protectionism has a certain multiplying effect - the technological relationship between industries leads to the fact that when protectionist protection is introduced for some industries of the technological chain, industries technologically related to the protected ones immediately require it.
under conditions of protectionism the national economy canetake full advantage of international specialization-- restrictions on cheaper imported goods prevent them from being brought into the country.
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal government intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand. In this case, the latter is implemented and developed in accordance with the international division of labor and the modern version of the theory of comparative advantage. Such policies are believed to lead to the most efficient allocation of resources on a global scale and to the maximization of global income. Despite the fact that the theory of free trade is quite convincing and attracts many advantages, the policy of non-interference of the state in international trade is practiced very carefully
Positive aspects can already be seen in the criticism of protectionism. Freedom of trade:
allows for the distribution of products in accordance with the law of comparative costs of production and entails international specialization beneficial to all;
facilitates the development of competition and supports the spirit of innovation not only among national producers, but also in relations with other countries;
allows you to expand the market. It leads to the development of mass production, and consequently to lower prices as a result of falling production costs, which is beneficial for the consumer. In addition, the risk of shortages associated with strict localization of production and markets is reduced.
15. Foreign trade policy of states and economic instruments
Foreign trade policy is a set of measures used by the state to regulate trade relations and relations with other countries. Although these measures are aimed at trade, they cannot but affect direct producers and consumers within the country.
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Demography studies the size, territorial distribution and composition of the population, patterns of their changes based on social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions.
home task demography as a science - identification and knowledge of demographic laws, patterns, relationships. Among practical problems There are three main demographics:
1) based on the collection and demographic analysis of information, study trends and factors in demographic processes;
2) development of demographic forecasts;
3) development of demographic statistics measures.
In demography, various research methods are used, including the descriptive method, statistical and mathematical methods of analysis, abstract analytical method, comparative method, analysis and synthesis, generalization, induction and deduction methods, the method of putting forward hypotheses and testing them, extrapolation and modeling, sociological methods studies of demographic behavior, cartographic methods, etc. At the same time, the main place in demography is occupied by statistical and mathematical methods of analysis.
Among the actual demographic methods most often used in demographic scientific and practical work are the cohort method, longitudinal and cross-sectional demographic analysis, the method of potential demography, methods for standardizing demographic coefficients, etc.
Demographic models are widely used in scientific and practical work; demographic forecast (especially often carried out by the method of moving by age) is usually an integral part of most works with demographic subjects.
Modern demography is a complex science about population (population), or more precisely, it is a whole system of interacting sciences that jointly study population reproduction and individual demographic processes. Internal differentiation of demographics is gradually becoming more complex. There are three main criteria on the basis of which internal differentiation in demography is justified; Moreover, the identification of subdisciplines and sections within demography is based on the joint application of all these criteria. Among them:
1) the theoretical level of scientific interpretation of observed phenomena;
2) objective-subject criterion;
3) connection with practice, the degree of focus on solving practical, applied problems.
In demography, as in other sciences, there is a process specializations. Among the branches of demography there are, for example, demographic statistics, descriptive demography, formal demography, theoretical demography, historical demography, economic demography, social demography and a number of other sections.
There are several areas of work in demography: demographic theory, collection of primary data on the population and demographic processes, description of demographic processes, pure - or formal - demography (considers the quantitative relationships of demographic phenomena, processes, structures, changes in the size and composition of the population under their influence), demographic analysis, historical demography, etc. As a result, we can distinguish seven main components in the system of demographic sciences:
1) theoretical demography, history of demography, descriptive demography, economic demography, modeling of socio-demographic processes, i.e. a kind of theoretical foundation of science;
2) branch demographic sciences: medical demography, ethnic demography, military demography, political demography, etc.;
3) sources of information and methods: sources of data on the population, methods - statistical, mathematical, sociological, cartographic, etc.;
4) regional demographics;
5) applied demographic research;
6) socio-demographic forecasting;
7) theoretical foundations of demographic policy.
Demography has close relationships with other sciences. Demographics interact particularly closely:
1) with socio-economic and historical sciences that study the economics of the population, sociology, social psychology, social and migration policy, population geography, ethnography, etc.;
2) mathematics and statistics (formal demography and statistical demography);
3) biological sciences: population genetics, evolutionary biology, epidemiology, biological forecasting of population development, etc. Demography uses methods and draws on facts established by these sciences. In turn, other sciences use demographic data to gain a deeper understanding of their subject of research.
The closest connection between demography and history is, since it is the consideration of reproduction as a historical process that makes it possible to identify its social conditionality, dependence on specific socio-economic processes of a particular period of development of society. With the help of ethnography, demography reveals the impact on the processes of population reproduction of the peculiarities of culture and life of different peoples. Of the economic sciences, those most closely related to demography are those that study employment and distribution relations. Among the sociological sciences, family sociology is closest to demography. Social psychology helps demography understand patterns of demographic behavior. Since such behavior is also regulated by legal norms, there are areas in demography related to jurisprudence. Demographic processes usually have significant regional differentiation and also depend on the types of settlements and settlements. Therefore, demography involves information and methods of population geography.
Statistical and mathematical methods are extremely important in demography. It is with their help that most data on the population is collected, and then this data is checked and corrected (errors are identified, standardization is carried out, etc.). It is no coincidence that demography first appeared as part of statistics. The bulk of the data comes from demographics, population statistics and medical statistics.
Many demographic processes are based on a biological component. This explains the use in demography of methods and research results of genetics, human physiology, psychology, gerontology, anthropology and other biological sciences. The state of people's health, the influence of working and living conditions on morbidity and mortality are studied by the science of social hygiene, which is also connected, therefore, with demography.
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